ALBERT

Note: Contents List of contributors Introduction Part I Geophysical methods 1 Electrical methods / C. Kneisel and C. Hauck 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Measurement principles 1.3 Data acquisition 1.4 Data processing 1.5 Periglacial applications and particularities 1.6 Conclusions 1.7 Checklist References 2 Electromagnetic methods / A. Hardt and C. Hauck 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Background 2.3 Periglacial applications and particularities 2.4 Conclusions 2.5 Checklist References 3 Refraction seismics / L. Schrott and T. Hoffmann 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Measurement principles 3.3 Limitations of seismic refraction based on measurement principles 3.4 Data acquisition 3.5 Data processing 3.6 Periglacial applications and particularities 3.7 Checklist References 4 Ground-penetrating radar / I. Berthling and K. Melvold 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Measurement principles 4.3 Data acqusition 4.4 Data processing 4.5 Periglacial applications and particularities 4.6 Recommendations References Part Il Case studies 5 Typology of vertical electrical soundings for permafrost/ground ice investigation in the forefields of small alpine glaciers / R. Delaloye and C. Lambiel 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Method 5.3 Typology 5.4 Conclusions References 6 ERT imaging for frozen ground detection / M. Ishikawa 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Data acquisition and quality control 6.3 Case studies 6.4 Summary References 7 Electrical resistivity values of frozen soil from YES and TEM field observations and laboratory experiments / K. Harada 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Methods 7.3 Results 7.4 Summary References 8 Results of geophysical surveys on Kasprowy Wierch, the Tatra Mountains, Poland / W. Dobinski, B. Zogala, K. Wzietek and L. Litwin 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Field site 8.3 Methods 8.4 Measurements 8.5 Analysis and interpretation of the measurements 8.6 Conclusions References 9 Reassessment of DC resistivity in rock glaciers by comparing with P-wave velocity: a case study in the Swiss Alps / A. Ikeda 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Methods 9.3 Field sites with borehole information 9.4 Results 9.5 Discussion 9.6 Conclusions References 10 Quantifying the ice content in low-altitude scree slopes using geophysical methods / C. Hauck and C. Kneisel 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Methods 10.3 Field sites 10.4 Results 10.5 Discussion and conclusions References 11 The use of GPR in determining talus thickness and talus structure / O. Sass 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Study sites and data acquisition 11.3 Results 11.4 Conclusions References 12 GPR soundings of rock glaciers on Svalbard / I. Berthling, B. Etzelmüller, H. Farbrot, K. Isaksen, M. Wåle and R. Ødegård 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Methods 12.3 Results and interpretation 12.4 Discussion References 13 Arctic glaciers and ground-penetrating radar. Case study: Stagnation Glacier, Bylot Island, Canada / T. Irvine-Fynn and B. Moorman 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Field site 13.3 Field methods 13.4 Processing methods 13.5 Results 13.6 Discussion 13.7 Conclusions References 14 Mapping of subglacial topography using GPR for determining subglacial hydraulic conditions / K. Melvold and T. V. Schuler 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Field site 14.3 Methodology 14.4 Results 14.5 Discussion 14.6 Conclusions References 15 Snow measurements using GPR: example from Amundsenisen, Svalbard / K. Melvold 15.1 Introduction 15.2 GPR and GPS equipment and measurements 15:3 Data processing 15.4 Results and discussion 15.5 Conclusions References 16 Mapping frazil ice conditions in rivers using ground penetrating radar / I. Berthling, H. Benjaminsen and A. Kvambekk 16J Introduction 16.2 Setting and field procedures 16.3 Results 16.4 Discussion 16.5 Conclusions References Contents Appendix Tables of geophysical parameters for periglacial environments Index

Note: Contents: List of Contributors. - Preface. - Part I. Introduction: 1. Applications and uses of diatoms: prologue ; 2. The diatoms: a primer ; 3. Numerical methods for the analysis of diatom assemblage data ; Part II. Diatoms as indicators of environmental change in flowing waters and lakes: 4. Assessing environmental conditions in rivers and streams with diatoms ; 5. Diatoms as indicators of long-term environmental change in rivers, fluvial lakes and impoundments ; 6. Diatoms as indicators of surface-water acidity ; 7. Diatoms as indicators of lake eutrophication ; 8. Diatoms as indicators of environmental change in shallow lakes ; 9. Diatoms as indicators of water-level change in freshwater lakes ; 10. Diatoms as indicators of hydrologic and climatic change in saline lakes ; 11. Diatoms in ancient lakes ; Part III. Diatoms as Indicators in Arctic, Antarctic and alpine lacustrine environments: 12. Diatoms as indicators of environmental change in subarctic and alpine regions ; 13. Freshwater diatoms as indicators of environmental change in the High Arctic ; 14. Diatoms as indicators of environmental change in Antarctic and subantarctic freshwaters ; Part IV. Diatoms as indicators in marine and estuarine environments: 15. Diatoms and environmental change in large brackish-water ecosystems ; 16. Applied diatom studies in estuaries and shallow coastal environments ; 17. Estuarine paleoenvironmental reconstructions using diatoms ; 18. Diatoms on coral reefs and in tropical marine lakes ; 19. Diatoms as indicators of former sea levels, earthquakes, tsunamis and hurricanes ; 20. Marine diatoms as indicators of modern changes in oceanographic conditions ; 21. Holocene marine diatom records of environmental change ; 22. Diatoms as indicators of paleoceanographic events ; 23. Reconsidering the meaning of biogenic silica accumulation rates in the glacial Southern Ocean ; Part V. Other applications: 24. Diatoms of aerial habitats ; 25. Diatoms as indicators of environmental change in wetlands and peatlands ; 26. Tracking fish, seabirds, and wildlife population dynamics with diatoms and other limnological indicators ; 27. Diatoms and archaeology ; 28. Diatoms in oil and gas exploration ; 29. Forensic science and diatoms ; 30. Toxic marine diatoms ; 31. Diatoms as markers of atmospheric transport ; 32. Diatoms as nonnative species ; 33. Diatomite ; 34. Stable isotopes from diatom silica ; 35. Diatoms and nanotechnology: early history and imagined future as seen through patents ; Part IV. Conclusions: 36. Epilogue: a view to the future ; Glossary, acronyms, and abbreviations ; Index.

Note: Contents Preface Acknowledgements 1 Introduction Terms and abbreviations 2 The biogeographlcal setting Geology, physiography, and surface materials The structural framework Pleistocene geology Bioclimates Arctic and its three subzones Subarctic zone Boreal zone Eastern temperate zone Grassland zone Pacific and Cordilleran zones 3 Autecology and pollen representation Introduction Transcontinental, primarily boreal taxa Eastern, primarily temperate taxa Pacific-Cordilleran taxa Arctic taxa Modern regional pollen spectra The Western Interior The eastern plains transect The Pacific-Cordilleran transect General comments on the modern pollen spectra 4 Full-glacial refugla The southern refugia Pacific-Cordilleran refugia Interior plains and eastern region The Beringian refugia 5 Eastern Canada-fossil record and reconstruction Introduction The late glacial - 12,700 to 10,000 yr BP Southern Quebec and New Brunswick Maritime Canada The Great Lakes Basin Vegetation reconstruction The Holocene - 10,000 yr BP to the present Southern Quebec and New Brunswick The Maritimes, Labrador, and Northern Quebec The Great Lakes Vegetation reconstruction Boreal region 6 The Western Interior Sites near the forest-grassland transition Sites within the modern boreal forest Sites near the modern forest-tundra boundary 7 Pacific-Cordilleran region Southern Pacific zone Southern Cordilleran zone Northern Pacific zone Northern Cordilleran zone 8 Vegetation reconstruction and palaeoenvironments Introduction Origins and history Eastern temperate forests Boreal forest Grasslands and parklands Pacific-Cordilleran complex Tundra (arctic) Palaeoenvironmental controls Climate The Milankovitch model Full-glacial conditions Late-glacial and Holocene Fire Pathogens Paludification Problems for the future Climate disequilibrium Spatial resolution Pollen source area Concluding comments Appendix References Index

Note: Contents: Preface. - List of abbreviations. - 1. Sea-level changes: the emergence of a Quaternary perspective. - 1.1 Introduction. - 1.2 The Quaternary Period. - 1.3 Sea-Jevel changes: historical development of ideas. - 1.4 Observations from classical antiquity until the nineteenth century. - 1.4.1 Early Mediterranean studies. - 1.4.2 Eighteenth-century writings on universal changes to the Earth. - 1.4.3 Diluvial Theory - the universal flood. - 1.4.4 The Temple of Serapis: a compelling case for relative sea-level change. - 1.4.5 Lavoisier and the concepts of transgression and regression. - 1.5 Glacial action and recognition of the Ice Ages. - 1.5.1 Louis Agassiz and the Glacial Theory. - 1.5.2 The Croll-Milankovitch Hypothesis. - 1.6 Vertical changes in land and sea Ievel related to Quaternary climate. - 1.6.1 Charles Darwin and James Dana. - 1.6.2 Insights from around the world. - 1. 7 Evolution of ideas in the twentieth century. - 1. 7.1 Developments in Europe. - 1.7.2 Advances in geochemistry and geochronology. - 1.7.3 Oxygen-isotope records from marine sediments and ice cores. - 1.7.4 Geophysical models of sea-level changes. - 1.7.5 Sequence stratigraphy. - 1.7.6 International concern and a focus on current and future sea-level trends. - 1.8 Theoretical concepts relevant to the study of Quaternary sea-level changes. - 1.9 Synthesis and way forward. - 1.9.1 Revisiting old ideas. - 1.9.2 Quaternary sea-level changes: the status quo. - 2. The causes of Quaternary sea-level changes. - 2.1 Introduction. - 2.2 Sea Ievel and sea-level changes: some definitions. - 2.2.1 Sea Ievel and base Ievel. - 2.2.2 Relative sea-level changes. - 2.3 Processes responsible for relative sea-level changes in the Quaternary. - 2.3.1 Glacio-eustasy. - 2.3.2 lsostasy. - 2.3.3 Glacial isostasy and relative sea-Ievel changes. - 2.3.4 Hydro-isostasy and relative sea-level changes. - 2.3.5 The geoid and changes to its configuration. - 2.3.6 Global variation in geophysical response and equatorial ocean siphoning. - 2.4 Tectonism, volcanism, and other processes resulting in relative sea-level changes. - 2.4.1 Teetonic movements. - 2.4.2 Volcanism and its link to sea-level changes. - 2.4.3 Lithospheric flexure. - 2.4.4 Changes in tidal range. - 2.4.5 Steric changes, meteorological changes, and the role of ENSO events. - 2.5 Geophysical models and the sea-!evel equation. - 2.6 Synthesis and conclusions. - 3. Palaeo-sea-level indicators. - 3.1 Introduction. - 3.1.1 Fixed and relational sea-level indicators. - 3.1.2 Relative sea-level changes, sea-level index points, and indicative meaning. - 3.1.3 Sources of uncertainty in palaeo-sea-Ievel estimation. - 3.1.4 Palaeo-sea-level curve or envelope?. - 3.1.5 Facies architecture, allostratigraphy, and sea-level changes. - 3.2 Pleistocene and Holocene palaeo-sea-level indicators compared. - 3.3 Corals and coral reefs. - 3.3.1 Reefs and Pleistocene sea Ievels. - 3.3.2 Reefs and Holocene sea Ievels. - 3.3.3 Conglomerates and recognition of in-situ corals. - 3.3.4 Microatolls. - 3.4 Other biological sea-level indicators. - 3.4.1 Fixed biological indicators. - 3.4.2 Mangroves. - 3.4.3 Salt-marsh sediments and microfossil analysis. - 3.4.4 Seagrass. - 3.4.5 Marine molluscs. - 3.4.6 Submerged forests. - 3.5 Geomorphological and geological sea-level indicators. - 3.5.1 Marine terraces and shore platforms. - 3.5.2 Shoreline notches and visors. - 3.5.3 Isolation basins. - 3.5.4 Beach ridges. - 3.5.5 Cheniers. - 3.5.6 Aeolianites. - 3.5.7 Calcretes. - 3.5.8 Beachrock. - 3.6 Geoarchaeology and sea-level changes. - 3.7 Synthesis and conclusions. - 4. Methods of dating Quaternary sea-level changes. - 4.1 Introduction. - 4.1.1 Terminology. - 4.1.2 Historical approaches used for evaluating geological age of coastal deposits. - 4.2 Radiocarbon dating. - 4.2.1 Underlying principles of the radiocarbon method. - 4.2.2 Age range. - 4.2.3 Measurement techniques. - 4.2.4 Isotopic fractionation. - 4.2.5 Marine reservoir and hard-water effects. - 4.2.6 Secular 14C/ 12C variation and the calibration of radiocarbon ages to sidereal years. - 4.2.7 Cantamination and sample pre-treatment strategies. - 4.2.8 Statistical considerations: comparisons of radiocarbon age and pooling of results. - 4.3 Uranium-series disequilibrium dating. - 4.3.1 Underlying principles of U-series disequilibrium dating. - 4.3.2 U-series dating of marine carbonates. - 4.3.3 U-series dating of other materials. - 4.4 Oxygen-isotope stratigraphy. - 4.5 Luminescence dating methods. - 4.5.1 Quantifying the cumulative effects of environmental radiation dose. - 4.5.2 Age range of luminescence methods. - 4.5.3 Anomalaus fading and partial bleaching. - 4.6 Electron spin resonance dating. - 4.7 Amino acid racemisation dating. - 4.7.1 The amino acid racemisation reaction. - 4.7.2 Environmental factors that influence racemisation. - 4.7.3 Sources of uncertainty in AAR dating. - 4.7.4 Application of AAR to dating coastal successions. - 4.8 Cosmogenic dating. - 4.9 Other dating techniques. - 4.9.1 Event markers. - 4.9.2 Palaeomagnetism. - 4.10 Synthesis and conclusions. - 5 Vertical displacement of shorelines. - 5.5.1 Introduction. - 5.2 Plate tectonics and implications for coastlines globally. - 5.2.1 Lithospheric plate domains. - 5.2.2 Plate margins. - 5.2.3 Plate tectonics and coastal classification. - 5.2.4 Ocean plate dynamics and island types. - 5.3 Styles of tectonic deformation and rates of uplift or subsidence. - 5.3.1 Coseismic uplift. - 5.3.2 Epeirogenic uplift. - 5.3.3 Folding and warping. - 5.3.4 Isostasy. - 5.3.5 Lithospheric flexure. - 5.3.6 Mantle plumes. - 5.3.7 Subsidence and submerged shorelines. - 5.4 The last interglacial shoreline: a reference for quantifying vertical displacement. - 5.4.1 Terrace age and elevation. - 5.4.2 Constraints on using the last interglacial shoreline as a benchmark. - 5.5 Coastlines in tectonically 'stable' cratonic regions. - 5.5.1 Australia. - 5.5.2 Southern Africa. - 5.6 Coastlines of emergence. - 5.6.1 Huon Peninsula. - 5.6.2 Barbados. - 5.6.3 Convergent continental margins: Chile. - 5.7 Vertical crustal movements associated with glacio-isostasy: Scandinavia. - 5.8 The Mediterranean Basin . - 5.8.1 Italy. - 5.8.2 Greece. - 5.9 The Caribbean region. - 5.9.1 Southern Florida and the Bahamas. - 5.9.2 Other Caribbean sites and more tectonically active islands. - 5.10 Divergent spreading-related coastlines: Red Sea. - 5.11 Pacific Plate. - 5.11.1 Pacific islands. - 5.11.2 Hawaii. - 5.11.3 Japan. - 5.11.4 New Zealand. - 5.12 Synthesis and conclusions. - 6. Pleistocene sea-level changes. - 6.1 Introduction. - 6.2 Prelude to the Pleistocene. - 6.3 Pleistocene icesheets. - 6.4 Early Pleistocene sea Ievels. - 6.4.1 Roe Calcarenite, Roe Plains, southern Australia. - 6.4.2 The Crag Group, southeastern England. - 6.S The middle Pleistocene Transition. - 6.6 Middle Pleistocene sea-level changes. - 6.7 Sea-level highstands of the middle Pleistocene. - 6.7.1 Marine Isotope Stage 11. - 6.7.2 Marine Isotope Stage 9 - the pre-penultimate interglacial. - 6.7.3 Marine Isotope Stage 7 - the penultimate interglacial. - 6.8 Middle Pleistocene sea-level lowstands. - 6.9 Late Pleistocene sea-level changes. - 6.9.1 The last interglacial maximum (MIS 5e). - 6.9.2 Timing and duration of the last interglacial maximum. - 6.9.3 Global estimates of last interglacial sea Ievels - the sanctity of the 6 m APSL datum?. - 6.10 Interstadial sea Ievels of the last glacial cycle (MIS 5c and 5a). - 6.11 Interstadial sea Ievels during MIS 3. - 6.12 Late Pleistocene interstadial sea Ievels: Dansgaard-Oeschgerand Heinrich Events. - 6.13 Eustatic sea Ievels during the Last Glacial Maximum (MIS 2). - 6.14 Long records of Pleistocene sea-level highstands. - 6.14.1 Coorong Coastal Plain and Murray Basin, southern Australia. - 6.14.2 Wanganui Basin, New Zealand. - 6.14.3 Sumba Island, Indonesia. - 6.15 Synthesis and conclusions. - 7. Sea-level changes since the Last Glacial Maximum. - 7.1 Introduction. -

Note: Contents Preface Prelude 1 The Earth-atmosphere system 1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 Descriptions of atmospheric behavior 1.1.2 Mechanisms influencing atmospheric behavior 1.2 Composition and structure 1.2.1 Description of air 1.2.2 Stratification of mass 1.2.3 Thermal and dynamical structure 1.2.4 Trace constituents 1.2.5 Cloud 1.3 Radiative equilibrium of the Earth 1.4 The global energy budget 1.4.1 Global-mean energy balance 1.4.2 Horizontal distribution of radiative transfer 1.5 The general circulation 1.6 Historical perspective: Global-mean temperature 1.6.1 The instrumental record 1.6.2 Proxy records Suggested references Problems 2 Thermodynamics of gases 2.1 Thermodynamic concepts 2.1.1 Thermodynamic properties 2.1.2 Expansion work 2.1.3 Heat transfer 2.1.4 State variables and thermodynamic processes 2.2 The First Law 2.2.1 Internal energy 2.2.2 Diabatic changes of state 2.3 Heat capacity 2.4 Adiabatic processes 2.4.1 Potential temperature 2.4.2 Thermodynamic behavior accompanying vertical motion 2.5 Diabatic processes 2.5.1 Polytropic processes Suggested references Problems 3 The Second Law and its implications 3.1 Natural and reversible processes 3.1.1 The Carnot cycle 3.2 Entropy and the Second Law 3.3 Restricted forms of the Second Law 3.4 The fundamental relations 3.4.1 The Maxwell Relations 3.4.2 Noncompensated heat transfer 3.5 Conditions for thermodynamic equilibrium 3.6 Relationship of entropy to potential temperature 3.6.1 Implications for vertical motion Suggested references Problems 4 Heterogeneous systems 4.1 Description of a heterogeneous system 4.2 Chemical equilibrium 4.3 Fundamental relations for a mufti-component system 4.4 Thermodynamic degrees of freedom 4.5 Thermodynamic characteristics of water 4.6 Equilibrium phase transformations 4.6.1 Latent heat 4.6.2 Clausius-Clapeyron Equation Suggested references Problems 5 Transformations of moist air 5.1 Description of moist air 5.1.1 Properties of the gas phase 5.1.2 Saturation properties 5.2 Implications for the distribution of water vapor 5.3 State variables of the two-component system 5.3.1 Unsaturated behavior 5.3.2 Saturated behavior 5.4 Thermodynamic behavior accompanying vertical motion 5.4.1 Condensation and the release of latent heat 5.4.2 The pseudo-adiabatic process 5.4.3 The Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate 5.5 The pseudo-adiabatic chart Suggested references Problems 6 Hydrostatic equilibrium 6.1 Effective gravity 6.2 Geopotential coordinates 6.3 Hydrostatic balance 6.3.1 Hypsometric equation 6.3.2 Meteorological Analyses 6.4 Stratification 6.4.1 Idealized stratification 6.5 Lagrangian interpretation of stratification 6.5.1 Adiabatic stratification: A paradigm of the troposphere 6.5.2 Diabatic stratification: A paradigm of the stratosphere Suggested references Problems 7 Static stability 7.1 Reaction to vertical displacement 7.2 Stability categories 7.2.1 Stability in terms of temperature 7.2.2 Stability in terms of potential temperature 7.2.3 Moisture dependence 7.3 Implications for vertical motion 7.4 Finite displacements 7.4.1 Conditional instability 7.4.2 Entrainment 7.4.3 Potential instability 7.4.4 Modification of stability under unsaturated conditions 7.5 Stabilizing and destabilizing influences 7.6 Turbulent dispersion 7.6.1 Convective mixing 7.6.2 Inversions 7.6.3 Life cycle of the nocturnal inversion 7.7 Relationship to observed thermal structure Suggested references Problems 8 Radiative transfer 8.1 Shortwave and longwave radiation 8.1.1 Spectra of observed SW and LW radiation 8.2 Description of radiative transfer 8.2.1 Radiometric quantities 8.2.2 Absorption 8.2.3 Emission 8.2.4 Scattering 8.2.5 The Equation of Radiative Transfer 8.3 Absorption characteristics of gases 8.3.1 Interaction between radiation and molecules 8.3.2 Line broadening 8.4 Radiative transfer in a plane parallel atmosphere 8.4.1 Transmission function 8.4.2 Two-stream approximation 8.5 Thermal equilibrium 8.5.1 Radiative equilibrium in a gray atmosphere 8.5.2 Radiative-convective equilibrium 8.5.3 Radiative heating 8.6 Thermal relaxation 8.7 The greenhouse effect 8.7.1 Feedback in the climate system 8.7.2 Unchecked feedback 8.7.3 Simulation of climate Suggested references Problems 9 Aerosol and cloud 9.1 Morphology of atmospheric aerosol 9.1.1 Continental aerosol 9.1.2 Marine aerosol 9.1.3 Stratospheric aerosol 9.2 Microphysics of cloud 9.2.1 Droplet growth by condensation 9.2.2 Droplet growth by collision 9.2.3 Growth of ice particles 9.3 Macroscopic characteristics of cloud 9.3.1 Formation and classification of cloud 9.3.2 Microphysical properties of cloud 9.3.3 Cloud dissipation 9.3.4 Cumulus detrainment: Influence on the environment 9.4 Radiative transfer in aerosol and cloud 9.4.1 Scattering by molecules and particles 9.4.2 Radiative transfer in a cloudy atmosphere 9.5 Roles of cloud and aerosol in climate 9.5.1 Involvement in the global energy budget 9.5.2 Involvement in chemical processes Suggested references Problems 10 Atmospheric motion 10.1 Description of atmospheric motion 10.2 Kinematics of fluid motion 10.3 The material derivative 10.4 Reynolds'transport theorem 10.5 Conservation of mass 10.6 The momentum budget 10.6.1 Cauchy's Equations of Motion 10.6.2 Momentum equations in a rotating reference frame 1 0.7 The first law of thermodynamics Suggested references Problems 11 Atmospheric equations of motion 11.1 Curvilinear coordinates 11.2 Spherical coordinates 11.2.1 The traditional approximation 11.3 Special forms of motion 11.4 Prevailing balances 11.4.1 Motion-related stratification 11.4.2 Scale analysis 11.5 Thermodynamic coordinates 11.5.1 Isobaric coordinates 11.5.2 Log-pressure coordinates 11.5.3 Isentropic coordinates Suggested references Problems 12 Large-scale motion 12.1 Ceostrophic equilibrium 12.1.1 Motion on an f plane 1 2.2 Vertical shear of the geostrophic wind 12.2.1 Classes of stratification 12.2.2 Thermal wind balance 12.3 Frictional geostrophic motion 1 2.4 Curvilinear motion 12.4.1 Inertial motion 12.4.2 Cyclostrophic motion 12.4.3 Gradient motion 12.5 Weakly divergent motion 12.5.1 Barotropic nondivergent motion 12.5.2 Vorticity budget under baroclinic stratification 12.5.3 Quasi-geostrophic motion Suggested references Problems 13 The planetary boundary layer 13.1 Description of turbulence 13.1.1 Reynolds decomposition 13.1.2 Turbulent diffusion 13.2 Structure of the boundary layer 13.2.1 The Ekman Layer 13.2.2 The surface layer 1 3.3 Influence of stratification 1 3.4 Ekman pumping Suggested references Problems 14 Wave propagation 14.1 Description of wave propagation 14.1.1 Surface water waves 14.1.2 Fourier synthesis 14.1.3 Limiting behavior 14.1.4 Wave dispersion 14.2 Acoustic waves 14.3 Buoyancy waves 14.3.1 Shortwave limit 14.3.2 Propagation of gravity waves in an inhomogeneous medium 14.3.3 The WKB approximation 14.3.4 Method of geometric optics 1 4.4 The Lamb wave 14.5 Rossby waves 14.5.1 Barotropic nondivergent Rossby waves 14.5.2 Rossby wave propagation in three dimensions 14.5.3 Planetary wave propagation in sheared mean flow 14.5.4 Transmission of planetary wave activity 14.6 Wave absorption 14.7 Nonlinear considerations Suggested references Problems 15 The general circulation 15.1 Forms of atmospheric energy 15.1.1 Moist static energy 15.1.2 Total potential energy 15.1.3 Available potential energy 1 5.2 Heat transfer in a zonally symmetric circulation 1 5.3 Heat transfer in a laboratory analogue 1 5.4 Quasi-permanent features 15.4.1 Thermal properties of the Earth's surface 1 5.4.2 Surface pressure and wind systems 1 5.4.3 Tropical circulations 15.5 Fluctuations of the circulation 15.5.1 Interannual changes 15.5.2 Intraseasonal variations Suggested references Problems 16 Dynamic stability 16.1 Inertial instability 16.2 Shear instability 16.2.1 Necessary conditions for instability 16.2.2

Note: Erscheinungsjahr in Vorlageform:2009

Note: Contents: Preface. - Acknowledgements. - PART 1 INTRODUCTION. - 1 Introduction. - 1.1 Humans and the coastal zone. - 1.2 Approaches to the study of coasts. - 1.3 Information sources. - 1.4 Approach and organisation. - References. - 2. Coastal geomorphology. - 2.1 Definition and scope of coastal geomorphology. - 2.2 The coastal zone: definition and nomenclature. - 2.3 Factors influencing coastal morphology and processes. - References. - PART 2 COASTAL PROCESSES. - 3. Sea level fluctuations and changes. - 3.1 Synopsis. - 3.2 Mean sea level, the geoid, and changes in mean sea level. - 3.3 Changes in mean sea level. - 3.4 Astronomical tides. - 3.5 Short-term dynamic changes in sea level. - 3.6 Climate change and sea level rise. - References. - 4. Wind-generated waves. - 4.1 Synopsis. - 4.2 Definition and characteristics of waves. - 4.3 Measurement and description of waves. - 4.4 Wave generation. - 4.5 Wave prediction. - 4.6 Wave climate. - Further reading. - Preferences. - 5. Waves - wave theory and wave dynamics. - 5.1 Synopsis. - 5.2 Wave theories. - 5.3 Wave shoaling and refraction. - 5.4 Wave breaking. - 5.5 Wave groups and low-frequency energy in the surf and swash zones. - Further reading. - References. - 6. Surf zone circulation. - 6.1 Synopsis. - 6.2 Undertow. - 6.3 Rip cells. - 6.4 Longshore currents. - 6.5 Wind and tidal currents. - Further reading. - References. - 7. Coastal sediment transport. - 7.1 Synopsis. - 7.2 Sediment transport mechanisms, boundary layers and bedforms. - 7.3 On-offshore sand transport. - 7.4 Longshore sand transport. - 7.5 Littoral sediment budget and littoral drift cells. - Further reading. - References. - PART 3 COASTAL SYSTEMS. - 8. Beach and nearshore systems. - 8.1 Synopsis. - 8.2 Beach and nearshore sediments and morphology. - 8.3 Nearshore morphodynamics. - 8.4 Beach morphodynamics. - References. - 9. Coastal sand dunes. - 9.1 Synopsis. - 9.2 Morphological components of coastal dunes and dune fields. - 9.3 Plant communities of coastal dunes. - 9.4 Aeolian processes in coastal dunes. - 9.5 Sand deposition. - 9.6 Beach / dune interaction and foredune evolution. - 9.7 Management of coastal dunes. - References. - 10. Barrier systems. - 10.1 Synopsis. - 10.2 Barrier types and morphology. - 10.3 Barrier dynamics: overwash and inlets. - 10.4 Barrier spit morphodynamics. - 10.5 Barrier islands. - 10.6 Management of barrier systems. - References. - 11. Salt marshes and mangroves. - 11.1 Synopsis. - 11.2 Saltmarsh and mangrove ecosystems. - 11.3 Salt marshes. - 11.4 Mangroves. - 11.5 Conservation and management of saltmarshes and mangroves. - Further reading. - References. - 12. Coral reefs and atolls. - 12.1 Synopsis. - 12.2 Corals and reef formation. - 12.3 Geomorphology and sedimentology of coral reefs. - 12.4 Impacts of disturbance on coral reefs. - Further reading. - References. - 13. Cliffed and rocky coasts. - 13.1 Synopsis. - 13.2 Cliffed coast morphology. - 13.3 Cliffed coast erosion system. - 13.4 Cohesive bluff coasts. - 13.5 Rock coasts. - 13.6 Shore platforms. - 13.7 Management of coastal cliff shorelines. - Further reading. - References. - Index

Note: Erscheinungsjahr in Vorlageform:2009

Note: Contents: Preface. - 1. Overview of climate variability and climate science. - 1.1 Climate dynamics, climate change and climate prediction. - 1.2 The chemical and physical climate system. - 1.2.1 Chemical and physical aspects of the climate system. - 1.2.2 El Niño and global warming. - 1.3 Climate models: a brief overview. - 1.4 Global change in recent history. - 1.4.1 Trace gas concentrations. - 1.4.2 A word on the ozone hole. - 1.4.3 Some history of global warming studies. - 1.4.4 Global temperatures. - 1.5 El Niño: an example of natural climate variability. - 1.5.1 Some history of El Niño studies. - 1.5.2 Observations of El Niño: the 1997-98 event. - 1.5.3 The first El Niño forecast with a coupled ocean-atmosphere model. - 1.6 Paleoclimate variability. - Notes. - 2. Basics of global climate. - 2.1 Components and phenomena in the climate system. - 2.1.1 Time and space scales. - 2.1.2 Interactions among scales and the parameterization problem. - 2.2 Basics of radiative forcing. - 2.2.1 Blackbody radiation. - 2.2.2 Solar energy input. - 2.3 Globally averaged energy budget: first glance. - 2.4 Gradients of radiative forcing and energy transports. - 2.5 Atmospheric circulation. - 2.5.1 Vertical structure. - 2.5.2 Latitude structure of the circulation. - 2.5.3 Latitude-Iongitude dependence of atmospheric climate features. - 2.6 Ocean circulation. - 2.6.1 Latitude-longitude dependence of oceanic climate features. - 2.6.2 The ocean vertical structure. - 2.6.3 The ocean thermohaline circulation. - 2.7 Land surface proeesses. - 2.8 The carbon cycle. - Notes. - 3. Physical processes in the climate system. - 3.1 Conservation of momentum. - 3.1.1 Coriolis force. - 3.1.2 Pressure gradient force. - 3.1.3 Velocity equations. - 3.1.4 Application: geostrophic wind. - 3.1.5 Pressure-height relation: hydrostatic balance. - 3.1.6 Application: pressure coordinates. - 3.2 Equation of state. - 3.2.1 Equation of state for the atmosphere: ideal gas law. - 3.2.2 Equation of state for the ocean. - 3.2.3 Application: atmospheric height-pressure-temperature relation. - 3.2.4 Application: thermal circulations. - 3.2.5 Application: sea level rise due to oceanic thermal expansion. - 3.3 Temperature equation. - 3.3.1 Ocean temperature equation. - 3.3.2 Temperature equation for air. - 3.3.3 Application: the dry adiabatic lapse rate near the surface. - 3.3.4 Application: decay of a sea surface temperature anomaly. - 3.3.5 Time derivative following the parcel. - 3.4 Continuity equation. - 3.4.1 Oceanic continuity equation. - 3.4.2 Atmospheric continuity equation. - 3.4.3 Application: coastal upwelling. - 3.4.4 Application: equatorial upwelling. - 3.4.5 Application: conservation of warm water mass in an idealized layer above the thermocline. - 3.5 Conservation of mass applied to moisture. - 3.5.1 Moisture equation for the atmosphere and surface. - 3.5.2 Sources and sinks of moisture, and latent heat. - 3.5.3 Application: surface melting on an ice sheet. - 3.5.4 Salinity equation for the ocean. - 3.6 Moist processes. - 3.6.1 Saturation. - 3.6.2 Saturation in convection; lifting condensation level. - 3.6.3 The moist adiabat and lapse rate in convective regions. - 3.6.4 Moist convection. - 3.7 Wave processes in the atmosphere and ocean. - 3.7.1 Gravity waves. - 3.7.2 Kelvin waves. - 3.7.3 Rossby waves. - 3.8 Overview. - Notes. - 4. El Niño and year-to-year climate prediction. - 4.1 Recap of El Niño basics. - 4.1.1 The Bjerknes hypothesis. - 4.2 Tropical Pacific climatology. - 4.3 ENSO mechanisms I: extreme phases. - 4.4 Pressure gradients in an idealized upper layer. - 4.4.1 Subsurface temperature anomalies in an idealized upper layer. - 4.5 Transition into the 1997-98 El Niño. - 4.5.1 Subsurface temperature measurements. - 4.5.2 Subsurface temperature anomalies during the onset of El Niño. - 4.5.3 Subsurface temperature anomalies during the transition to La Niña. - 4.6 El Niño mechanisms II: dynamics of transition phases. - 4.6.1 Equatorial jets and the Kelvin wave. - 4.6.2 The Kelvin wave speed. - 4.6.3 What sets the width of the Kelvin wave and equatorial jet?. - 4.6.4 Response of the ocean to a wind anomaly. - 4.6.5 The delayed oscillator model and the recharge oscillator model. - 4.6.6 ENSO transition mechanism in brief. - 4.7 El Niño prediction. - 4.7.1 Limits to skill in ENSO forecasts. - 4.8 El Niño remote impacts: teleconnections. - 4.9 Other interannual climate phenomena. - 4.9.1 Hurricane season forecasts. - 4.9.2 Sahel drought. - 4.9.3 North Atlantic oscillation and annular modes. - Notes. - 5. Climate models. - 5.1 Constructing a climate model. - 5.1.1 An atmospheric model. - 5.1.2 Treatment of sub-grid-scale processes. - 5.1.3 Resolution and computational cost. - 5.1.4 An ocean model and ocean-atmosphere coupling. - 5.1.5 Land surface, snow, ice and vegetation. - 5.1.6 Summary of principal climate model equations. - 5.1.7 Climate system modeling. - 5.2 Numerical representation of atmospheric and oceanic equations. - 5.2.1 Finite-difference versus spectral models. - 5.2.2 Time-stepping and numerical stability. - 5.2.3 Staggered grids and other grids. - 5.2.4 Parallel computer architecture. - 5.3 Parameterization of small-scale processes. - 5.3.1 Mixing and surface fluxes. - 5.3.2 Dry convection. - 5.3.3 Moist convection. - 5.3.4 Land surface processes and soil moisture. - 5.3.5 Sea ice and snow. - 5.4 The hierarchy of climate models. - 5.5 Climate simulations and climate drift. - 5.6 Evaluation of climate model simulations for present-day climate. - 5.6.1 Atmospheric model climatology from specified SST. - 5.6.2 Climate model simulation of climatology. - 5.6.3 Simulation of ENSO response. - Notes. - 6. The greenhouse effect and climate feedbacks. - 6.1 The greenhouse effect in Earth's current climate. - 6.1.1 Global energy balance. - 6.1.2 A global-average energy balance model with a one-layer atmosphere. - 6.1.3 Infrared emissions from a layer. - 6.1.4 The greenhouse effect: example with a completely IR-absorbing atmosphere. - 6.1.5 The greenhouse effect in a one-layer atmosphere, global-average model. - 6.1.6 Temperatures from the one-layer energy balance model. - 6.2 Global warming I: example in the global-average energy balance model. - 6.2.1 Increases in the basic greenhouse effect. - 6.2.2 Climate feedback parameter in the one-layer global-average model. - 6.3 Climate feedbacks. - 6.3.1 Climate feedback parameter. - 6.3.2 Contributions of climate feedbacks to global-average temperature response. - 6.3.3 Climate sensitivity. - 6.4 The water vapor feedback. - 6.5 Snow/ice feedback. - 6.6 Cloud feedbacks. - 6.7 Other feedbacks in the physical climate system. - 6.7.1 Stratospheric cooling. - 6.7.2 Lapse rate feedback. - 6.8 Climate response time in transient climate change. - 6.8.1 Transient climate change versus equilibrium response experiments. - 6.8.2 A doubled-CO2 equilibrium response experiment. - 6.8.3 The role of the oceans in slowing warming. - 6.8.4 Climate sensitivity in transient climate change. - Notes. - 7. Climate model scenarios for global warming. - 7.1 Greenhouse gases, aerosols and other climate forcings. - 7.1.1 Scenarios, forcings and feedbacks. - 7.1.2 Forcing by sulfate aerosols. - 7.1.3 Commonly used scenarios. - 7.2 Global-average response to greenhouse warming scenarios. - 7.3 Spatial patterns of warming for time-dependent scenarios. - 7.3.1 Comparing projections of different climate models. - 7.3.2 Multi-model ensemble averages. - 7.3.3 Polar amplification of warming. - 7.3.4 Summary of spatial patterns of the response. - 7.4 Ice, sea level, extreme events. - 7.4.1 Sea ice and snow. - 7.4.2 Land ice. - 7.4.3 Extreme events. - 7.5 Summary: the best-estimate prognosis. - 7.6 Climate change observed to date. - 7.6.1 Temperature trends and natural variability: scale dependence. - 7.6.2 Is the observed trend consistent with natural variability or anthropogenic forcing?. - 7.6.3 Sea ice, land ice, ocean heat storage and sea level rise. - 7.7 Emissions

Note: Earthquakes and fault motion. pp. 1-21. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.002 --- Processing and analysis of recorded seismic signals. pp. 22-40. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.003 --- Mathematical representation of the source. pp. 41-62. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.004 --- Point source models. pp. 63-89. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.005 --- The seismic moment tensor. pp. 90-107. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.006 --- Determination of point source mechanisms. pp. 108-134. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.007 --- Kinematics of extended sources. pp. 135-162. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.008 --- Determination of source dimensions. pp. 163-188. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.009 --- Simple dynamic models. pp. 189-204. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.010 --- Dynamics of fracture. Homogeneous models. pp. 205-231. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.011 --- Fracture dynamics. Heterogeneous models. pp. 232-258. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.012 --- Modeling earthquakes using fracture dynamics. pp. 259-283. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.013

Note: Contents: Contributors. - Preface. - Introduction and Scientific Background / J.C.R. Hunt, J. Norbury and I. Roulstone. - 1. A view of the equations of meteorological dynamics and various approximations / A. A. White. - 2. Extended-geostrophic Euler-Poincare models for mesoscale oceanographic flow / J. S. Allen, D. D. Holm and P. A. Newberger. - 3. Fast singular oscillating limits of stably-stratified 3D Euler and Navier-Stokes equations and ageostrophic wave fronts / A. Babin, A. Mahalov and B. Nicolaenko. - 4. New mathematical developments in atmosphere and ocean dynamics, and their application to computer simulations / M. J. P. Cullen. - 5. Rearrangements of functions with applications to meteorology and ideal fluid flow / R. J. Douglas. - 6. Statistical methods in atmospheric dynamics: probability metrics and discrepancy measures as a means of defining balance / S. Baigent and J. Norbury.

Note: Contents: Foreword. - Preface. - Summary for Policymakers. - Technical Summary. - 1 The Climate System: an Overview. - 2 Observed Climate Variability and Change. - 3 The Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide. - 4 Atmospheric Chemistry and Greenhouse Gases. - 5 Aerosols, their Direct and Indirect Effects. - 6 Radiative Forcing of Climate Change. - 7 Physical Climate Processes and Feedbacks. - 8 Model Evaluation. - 9 Projections of Future Climate Change. - 10 Regional Climate Information - Evaluation and Projections. - 11 Changes in Sea Level. - 12 Detection of Climate Change and Attribution of Causes. - 13 Climate Scenario Development. - 14 Advancing Our Understanding. - Appendix I Glossary. - Appendix II SRES Tables. - Appendix Ill Contributors to the IPCC WGI Third Assessment Report. - Appendix IV Reviewers of the IPCC WGI Third Assessment Report. - Appendix V Acronyms and Abbreviations. - Appendix VI Units. - Appendix VII Some Chemical Symbols used in this Report. - Appendix VIII Index.

Note: Contents Preface Part 1 Mathematical tools M 1 Algebra of vectors M 1.1 Basic concepts and definitions M 1.2 Reference frames M 1.3 Vector multiplication M 1.4 Reciprocal coordinate systems M 1.5 Vector representations M 1.6 Products of vectors in general coordinate systems M 1.7 Problems M 2 Vector functions M 2.1 Basic definitions and operations M 2.2 Special dyadics M 2.3 Principal-axis transformation of symmetric tensors M 2.4 Invariants of a dyadic M 2.5 Tensor algebra M 2.6 Problems M 3 Differential relations M 3.1 Differentiation of extensive functions M 3.2 The Hamilton operator in generalized coordinate systems M 3.3 The spatial derivative of the basis vectors M 3.4 Differential invariants in generalized coordinate systems M 3.5 Additional applications M 3.6 Problems M 4 Coordinate transformations M 4.1 Transformation relations of time-independent coordinate systems M 4.2 Transformation relations of time-dependent coordinate systems M 4.3 Problems M 5 The method of covariant differentiation M 5.1 Spatial differentiation of vectors and dyadics M 5.2 Time differentiation of vectors and dyadics M 5.3 The local dyadic of vP M 5.4 Problems M 6 Integral operations M 6.1 Curves, surfaces, and volumes in the general qi system M 6.2 Line integrals, surface integrals, and volume integrals M 6.3 Integral theorems M 6.4 Fluid lines, surfaces, and volumes M 6.5 Time differentiation of fluid integrals M 6.6 The general form of the budget equation M 6.7 Gauss' theorem and the Dirac delta function M 6.8 Solution of Poisson's differential equation M 6.9 Appendix: Remarks on Euclidian and Riemannian spaces M 6.10 Problems M 7 Introduction to the concepts of nonlinear dynamics M 7.1 One-dimensional flow M 7.2 Two-dimensional flow Part 2 Dynamics of the atmosphere 1 The laws of atmospheric motion 1.1 The equation of absolute motion 1.2 The energy budget in the absolute reference system 1.3 The geographical coordinate system 1.4 The equation of relative motion 1.5 The energy budget of the general relative system 1.6 The decomposition of the equation of motion 1.7 Problems 2 Scale analysis 2.1 An outline of the method 2.2 Practical formulation of the dimensionless flow numbers 2.3 Scale analysis of large-scale frictionless motion 2.4 The geostrophic wind and the Euier wind 2.5 The equation of motion on a tangential plane 2.6 Problems 3 The material and the local description of flow 3.1 The description of Lagrange 3.2 Lagrange's version of the continuity equation 3.3 An example of the use of Lagrangian coordinates 3.4 The local description of Euler 3.5 Transformation from the Eulerian to the Lagrangian system 3.6 Problems 4 Atmospheric flow fields 4.1 The velocity dyadic 4.2 The deformation of the continuum 4.3 Individual changes with time of geometric fluid configurations 4.4 Problems 5 The Navier-Stokes stress tensor 5.1 The general stress tensor 5.2 Equilibrium conditions in the stress field 5.3 Symmetry of the stress tensor 5.4 The frictional stress tensor and the deformation dyadic 5.5 Problems 6 The Helmholtz theorem 6.1 The three-dimensional Helmholtz theorem 6.2 The two-dimensional Helmholtz theorem 6.3 Problems 7 Kinematics of two-dimensional flow 7.1 Atmospheric flow fields 7.2 Two-dimensional streamlines and normals 7.3 Streamlines in a drifting coordinate system 7.4 Problems 8 Natural coordinates 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Differential definitions of the coordinate lines 8.3 Metric relationships 8.4 Blaton's equation 8.5 Individual and local time derivatives of the velocity 8.6 Differential invariants 8.7 The equation of motion for frictionless horizontal flow 8.8 The gradient wind relation 8.9 Problems 9 Boundary surfaces and boundary conditions 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Differential operations at discontinuity surfaces 9.3 Particle invariance at boundary surfaces, displacement velocities 9.4 The kinematic boundary-surface condition 9.5 The dynamic boundary-surface condition 9.6 The zeroth-order discontinuity surface 9.7 An example of a first-order discontinuity surface 9.8 Problems 10 Circulation and vorticity theorems 10.1 ErteFs form of the continuity equation 10.2 The baroclinic Weber transformation 10.3 The baroclinic Ertel-Rossby invariant 10.4 Circulation and vorticity theorems for frictionless baroclinic flow 10.5 Circulation and vorticity theorems for frictionless barotropic flow 10.6 Problems 11 Turbulent systems 11.1 Simple averages and fluctuations 11.2 Weighted averages and fluctuations 11.3 Averaging the individual time derivative and the budget operator 11.4 Integral means 11.5 Budget equations of the turbulent system 11.6 The energy budget of the turbulent system 11.7 Diagnostic and prognostic equations of turbulent systems 11.8 Production of entropy in the microturbulent system 11.9 Problems 12 An excursion into spectral turbulence theory 12.1 Fourier Representation of the continuity equation and the equation of motion 12.2 The budget equation for the amplitude of the kinetic energy 12.3 Isotropie conditions, the transition to the continuous wavenumber space 12.4 The Heisenberg spectrum 12.5 Relations for the Heisenberg exchange coefficient 12.6 A prognostic equation for the exchange coefficient 12.7 Concluding remarks on closure procedures 12.8 Problems 13 The atmospheric boundary layer 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Prandtl-layer theory 13.3 The Monin-Obukhov similarity theory of the neutral Prandtl layer 13.4 The Monin-Obukhov similarity theory of the diabatic Prandtl layer 13.5 Application of the Prandtl-layer theory in numerical prognostic models 13.6 The fluxes, the dissipation of energy, and the exchange coefficients 13.7 The interface condition at the earth's surface 13.8 The Ekman layer - the classical approach 13.9 The composite Ekman layer 13.10 Ekman pumping 13.11 Appendix A: Dimensional analysis 13.12 Appendix B: The mixing length 13.13 Problems 14 Wave motion in the atmosphere 14.1 The representation of waves 14.2 The group velocity 14.3 Perturbation theory 14.4 Pure sound waves 14.5 Sound waves and gravity waves 14.6 Lamb waves 14.7 Lee waves 14.8 Propagation of energy 14.9 External gravity waves 14.10 Internal gravity waves 14.11 Nonlinear waves in the atmosphere 14.12 Problems 15 The barotropic model 15.1 The basic assumptions of the barotropic model 15.2 The tinfiltered barotropic prediction model 15.3 The filtered barotropic model 15.4 Barotropic instability 15.5 The mechanism of barotropic development 15.6 Appendix 15.7 Problems 16 Rossby waves 16.1 One-and two-dimensional Rossby waves 16.2 Three-dimensional Rossby waves 16.3 Normal-mode considerations 16.4 Energy transport by Rossby waves 16.5 The influence of friction on the stationary Rossby wave 16.6 Barotropic equatorial waves 16.7 The principle of geostrophic adjustment 16.8 Appendix 16.9 Problems 17 Inertial and dynamic stability 17.1 Inertial motion in a horizontally homogeneous pressure field 17.2 Inertial motion in a homogeneous geostrophic wind field 17.3 Inertial motion in a geostrophic shear wind field 17.4 Derivation of the stability criteria in the geostrophic wind field 17.5 Sectorial stability and instability 17.6 Sectorial stability for normal atmospheric conditions 17.7 Sectorial stability and instability with permanent adaptation 17.8 Problems 18 The equation of motion in general coordinate systems 18.1 Introduction 18.2 The covariant equation of motion in general coordinate systems 18.3 The contravariant equation of motion in general 18.4 The equation of motion in orthogonal coordinate systems 18.5 Lagrange's equation of motion 18.6 Hamilton's equation of motion 18.7 Appendix 18.8 Problems 19 The geographical coordinate systems 19.1 The equation of motion 19.2 Application of Lagrange's equation of motion 19.3 The first metric simplification 19.4 The coordinate simplification 19.5 The continuity equation 19.6 Problems 20 The stereographic coordinate system 20.1 The stereographic projection 20.2 Metric forms in stereographic coordinates 20.

Note: Contents: Preface to the Second Edition. - Preface to the First Edition. - Legal Matters. - Computer Programs by Chapter and Section. - 1 Preliminaries. - 1.0 Introduction. - 1.1 Program Organization and Control Structures. - 1.2 Error, Accuracy, and Stability. - 2 Solution of Linear Algebraic Equations. - 2.0 Introduction. - 2.1 Gauss-Jordan Elimination. - 2.2 Gaussian Elimination with Backsubstitution. - 2.3 LU Decomposition and Its Applications. - 2.4 Tridiagonal and Band Diagonal Systems of Equations. - 2.5 Iterative Improvement of a Solution to Linear Equations. - 2.6 Singular Value Decomposition. - 2.7 Sparse Linear Systems. - 2.8 Vandermonde Matrices and Toeplitz Matrices. - 2.9 Cholesky Decomposition. - 2.10 QR Decomposition. - 2.11 Is Matrix Inversion an N3 Process?. - 3 Interpolation and Extrapolation. - 3.0 Introduction. - 3.1 Polynomial Interpolation and Extrapolation. - 3.2 Rational Function Interpolation and Extrapolation. - 3.3 Cubic Spline Interpolation. - 3.4 How to Search an Ordered Table. - 3.5 Coefficients of the Interpolating Polynomial. - 3.6 Interpolation in Two or More Dimensions. - 4 Integration of Functions. - 4.0 Introduction. - 4.1 Classical Formulas for Equally Spaced Abscissas. - 4.2 Elementary Algorithms. - 4.3 Romberg Integration. - 4.4 Improper Integrals. - 4.5 Gaussian Quadratures and Orthogonal Polynomials. - 4.6 Multidimensional Integrals. - 5 Evaluation of Functions. - 5.0 Introduction. - 5.1 Series and Their Convergence. - 5.2 Evaluation of Continued Fractions. - 5.3 Polynomials and Rational Functions. - 5.4 Complex Arithmetic. - 5.5 Recurrence Relations and Clenshaw's Recurrence Formula. - 5.6 Quadratic and Cubic Equations. - 5.7 Numerical Derivatives. - 5.8 Chebyshev Approximation. - 5.9 Derivatives or Integrals of a Chebyshev-approximated Function. - 5.10 Polynomial Approximation from Chebyshev Coefficients. - 5.11 Economization of Power Series. - 5.12 Pade Approximants. - 5.13 Rational Chebyshev Approximation. - 5.14 Evaluation of Functions by Path Integration. - 6 Special Functions. - 6.0 Introduction. - 6.1 Gamma Function, Beta Function, Factorials, Binomial Coefficients. - 6.2 Incomplete Gamma Function, Error Function, Chi-Square Probability Function, Cumulative Poisson Function. - 6.3 Exponential Integrals. - 6.4 Incomplete Beta Function, Student's Distribution, F-Distribution, Cumulative Binomial Distribution. - 6.5 Bessel Functions of Integer Order. - 6.6 Modified Bessel Functions of Integer Order. - 6.7 Bessel Functions of Fractional Order, Airy Functions, Spherical Bessel Functions. - 6.8 Spherical Harmonics. - 6.9 Fresnel Integrals, Cosine and Sine Integrals. - 6.10 Dawson's Integral. - 6.11 Elliptic Integrals and Jacobian Elliptic Functions. - 6.12 Hypergeometric Functions. - 7 Random Numbers. - 7.0 Introduction. - 7.1 Uniform Deviates. - 7.2 Transformation Method: Exponential and Normal Deviates. - 7.3 Rejection Method: Gamma, Poisson, Binomial Deviates. - 7.4 Generation of Random Bits. - 7.5 Random Sequences Based on Data Encryption. - 7.6 Simple Monte Carlo Integration. - 7.7 Quasi- (that is, Sub-) Random Sequences. - 7.8 Adaptive and Recursive Monte Carlo Methods. - 8 Sorting. - 8.0 Introduction. - 8.1 Straight Insertion and Shell's Method. - 8.2 Quicksort. - 8.3 Heapsort. - 8.4 Indexing and Ranking. - 8.5 Selecting the Mth Largest. - 8.6 Determination of Equivalence Classes. - 9 Root Finding and Nonlinear Sets of Equations. - 9.0 Introduction. - 9.1 Bracketing and Bisection. - 9.2 Secant Method, False Position Method, and Ridders' Method. - 9.3 Van Wijngaarden-Dekker-Brent Method. - 9.4 Newton-Raphson Method Using Derivative. - 9.5 Roots of Polynomials. - 9.6 Newton-Raphson Method for Nonlinear Systems of Equations. - 9.7 Globally Convergent Methods for Nonlinear Systems of Equations. - 10 Minimization or Maximization of Functions. - 10.0 Introduction. - 10.1 Golden Section Search in One Dimension. - 10.2 Parabolic Interpolation and Brent's Method in One Dimension. - 10.3 One-Dimensional Search with First Derivatives. - 10.4 Downhill Simplex Method in Multidimensions. - 10.5 Direction Set (Powell's) Methods in Multidimensions. - 10.6 Conjugate Gradient Methods in Multidimensions. - 10.7 Variable Metric Methods in Multidimensions. - 10.8 Linear Programming and the Simplex Method. - 10.9 Simulated Annealing Methods. - 11 Eigensystems. - 11.0 Introduction. - 11.1 Jacobi Transformations of a Symmetric Matrix. - 11.2 Reduction of a Symmetric Matrix to Tridiagonal Form: Givens and Householder Reductions. - 11.3 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of a Tridiagonal Matrix. - 11.4 Hermitian Matrices. - 11.5 Reduction of a General Matrix to Hessenberg Form. - 11.6 The QR Algorithm for Real Hessenberg Matrices. - 11.7 Improving Eigenvalues and/or Finding Eigenvectors by Inverse Iteration. - 12 Fast Fourier Transform. - 12.0 Introduction. - 12.1 Fourier Transform of Discretely Sampled Data. - 12.2 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). - 12.3 FFT of Real Functions, Sine and Cosine Transforms. - 12.4 FFT in Two or More Dimensions. - 12.5 Fourier Transforms of Real Data in Two and Three Dimensions. - 12.6 External Storage or Memory-Local FFTs. - 13 Fourier and Spectral Applications. - 13.0 Introduction. - 13.1 Convolution and Deconvolution Using the FFT. - 13.2 Correlation and Autocorrelation Using the FFT. - 13.3 Optimal (Wiener) Filtering with the FFT. - 13.4 Power Spectrum Estimation Using the FFT. - 13.5 Digital Filtering in the Time Domain. - 13.6 Linear Prediction and Linear Predictive Coding. - 13.7 Power Spectrum Estimation by the Maximum Entropy (All Poles) Method. - 13.8 Spectral Analysis of Unevenly Sampled Data. - 13.9 Computing Fourier Integrals Using the FFT. - 13.10 Wavelet Transforms. - 13.11 Numerical Use of the Sampling Theorem. - 14 Statistical Description of Data. - 14.0 Introduction. - 14.1 Moments of a Distribution: Mean, Variance, Skewness, and So Forth. - 14.2 Do Two Distributions Have the Same Means or Variances?. - 14.3 Are Two Distributions Different?. - 14.4 Contingency Table Analysis of Two Distributions. - 14.5 Linear Correlation. - 14.6 Nonparametric or Rank Correlation. - 14.7 Do Two-Dimensional Distributions Differ?. - 14.8 Savitzky-Golay Smoothing Filters. - 15 Modeling of Data. - 15.0 Introduction. - 15.1 Least Squares as a Maximum Likelihood Estimator. - 15.2 Fitting Data to a Straight Line. - 15.3 Straight-Line Data with Errors in Both Coordinates. - 15.4 General Linear Least Squares. - 15.5 Nonlinear Models. - 15.6 Confidence Limits on Estimated Model Parameters. - 15.7 Robust Estimation. - 16 Integration of Ordinary Differential Equations. - 16.0 Introduction. - 16.1 Runge-Kutta Method. - 16.2 Adaptive Stepsize Control for Runge-Kutta. - 16.3 Modified Midpoint Method. - 16.4 Richardson Extrapolation and the Bulirsch-Stoer Method. - 16.5 Second-Order Conservative Equations. - 16.6 Stiff Sets of Equations. - 16.7 Multistep, Multivalue, and Predictor-Corrector Methods. - 17 Two Point Boundary Value Problems. - 17.0 Introduction. - 17.1 The Shooting Method. - 17.2 Shooting to a Fitting Point. - 17.3 Relaxation Methods. - 17.4 A Worked Example: Spheroidal Harmonics. - 17.5 Automated Allocation of Mesh Points. - 17.6 Handling Internal Boundary Conditions or Singular Points. - 18 Integral Equations and Inverse Theory. - 18.0 Introduction. - 18.1 Fredholm Equations of the Second Kind. - 18.2 Volterra Equations. - 18.3 Integral Equations with Singular Kernels. - 18.4 Inverse Problems and the Use of A Priori Information. - 18.5 Linear Regularization Methods. - 18.6 Backus-Gilbert Method. - 18.7 Maximum Entropy Image Restoration. - 19 Partial Differential Equations. - 19.0 Introduction. - 19.1 Flux-Conservative Initial Value Problems. - 19.2 Diffusive Initial Value Problems. - 19.3 Initial Value Problems in Multidi

Note: Contents List of contributors Preface I Introductory Chapters 1 The Ecological Value of Biyophytes as Indicators of Climate Change / NANCY G. SLACK 2 Bryophyte Physiological Processes in a Changing Climate: an Overview / ZOLTÁN TUBA II Ecophysiology 3 Climatic Responses and Limits of Biyophytes: Comparisons and Contrasts with Vascular Plants / MICHAEL C. F. PROCTOR 4 Effects of Elevated Air C02 Concentration on Bryophytes: a Review / ZOLTÁN TUBA, EDIT ÖTVÖS, AND ILDIKÓ JÓCSÁK 5 Seasonal and Interannual Variability of Light and UV Acclimation in Mosses / NIINA M. LAPPALAINEN, ANNA HYYRYLÄINEN, AND SATU HUTTUNEN III Aquatic Bryophytes 6 Ecological and Physiological Effects of Changing Climate on Aquatic Bryophytes / JANICE M. GLIME 7 Aquatic Bryophytes under Ultraviolet Radiation / JAVIER MARTÍNEZ-ABAIGAR AND ENCARNACIÓN NÚÑEZ-OLIVERA IV Desert and Tropical Ecosystems 8 Responses of a Biological Crust Moss to Increased Monsoon Precipitation and Nitrogen Deposition in the Mojave Desert / LLOYD R. STARK, D. NICHOLAS MCLETCHIE, STANLEY D. SMITH, AND MELVIN J. OLIVER 9 Ecology of Bryophytes in Mojave Desert Biological Soil Crusts: Effects of Elevated CO2 on Sex Expression, Stress Tolerance, and Productivity in the Moss Syntrichia caninervis Mitt. / JOHN C. BRINDA, CATHERINE FERNANDO, AND LLOYD R. STARK 10 Responses of Epiphytic Bryophyte Communities to Simulated Climate Change in the Tropics / JORGE JÁCOME, S. ROBBERT GRADSTEIN, AND MICHAEL KESSLER V Alpine, Arctic, and Antarctic Ecosystems 11 Effects of Climate Change on Tundra Bryophytes / ANNIKA K. JÄGERBRAND, ROBERT G. BJÖRK, TERRY CALLAGHAN, AND RODNEY D. SEPPELT 12 Alpine Bryophytes as Indicators for Climate Change: a Case Study from the Austrian Alps / DANIELA HOHENWALLNER, HAROLD GUSTAV ZECHMEISTER, DIETMAR MOSER, HARALD PAULI, MICHAEL GOTTFRIED, KARL REITER, AND GEORG GRABHERR 13 Bryophytes and Lichens in a Changing Climate: An Antarctic Perspective / RODNEY D. SEPPELT VI Sphagnum and Peatlands 14 Living on the Edge: The Effects of Drought on Canada's Western Boreal Peatlands / MELANIE A. VILE, KIMBERLI D. SCOTT, ERIN BRAULT, R. KELMAN WlEDER, AND DALE H . VlTT 15 The Structure and Functional Features of Sphagnum Cover of the Northern West Siberian Mires in Connection with Forecasting Global Environmental and Climatic Changes / ALEKSEI V. NAUMOV AND NATALIA P. KOSYKH 16 The Southernmost Sphagnum-dominated Mires on the Plains of Europe: Formation, Secondary Succession, Degradation, and Protection / JÁNOS NAGY VII Changes in Bryophyte Distribution with Climate Change: Data and Models 17 The Role of Bryophyte Paleoecology in Quaternary Climate Reconstructions / GUSZTÁV JAKAB AND PÁL SÜMEGI 18 Signs of Climate Change in the Bryoflora of Hungary / TAMÁS PÓCS 19 Can the Effects of Climate Change on British Bryophytes be Distinguished from those Resulting from Other Environmental Changes? / JEFFREY W. BATES AND CHRISTOPHER D. PRESTON 20 Climate Change and Protected Areas: How well do British Rare Bryophytes Fare? / BARBARA J. ANDERSON AND RALF OHLEMÜLLER 21 Modeling the Distribution of Sematophyllum substrumulosum (Hampe) E. Britton as a Signal of Climatic Changes in Europe / CECÍLIA SÉRGIO, RUI FIGUEIRA, AND RUI MENEZES 22 Modeling Bryophyte Productivity Across Gradients of Water Availability Using Canopy Form-Function Relationships / STEVEN K. RICE, NATHALI NEAL, JESSE MANGO, AND KELLY BLACK VIII Conclusions 23 Bryophytes as Predictors of Climate Change / L. DENNIS GIGNAC 24 Conclusions and Future Research / NANCY G. SLACK AND LLOYD R. STARK Index

Note: Literaturverz. S. 265 - 280

Note: Introduction : a broadened understanding of global environmental negotiations / Hannah Hughes and Alice B. M. Vadro -- Starting : practical and ethical considerations / Alice B. M. Vadrot and Hannah Hughes -- Frameworks : developing and working with analytical frameworks / Michele Betsill and Naghmeh Nasiritousi -- Concepts : selecting, applying and innovating concepts / Hannah Hughes and Alice B. M. Vadrot -- Stakes : conducting relational research with Indigenous peoples / Marcela Vecchione-Gonçalves with Hannah Hughes -- Negotiations : navigating global environmental conferences / Tracy Bach and Beth Martin -- Beyond negotiations : studying side events, exhibition booths, and other neglected conference spaces / Jennifer Bansard -- Texts : collecting and analyzing event documents / Jennifer Iris Allan and Pamela Chasek -- Interviews : conducting and using interviews on and at negotiations / Yulia Yamineva -- Ethnography : from method to methodology at plural sites of agreement-making / Kimberly R. Marion Suiseeya and Laura Zanotti -- Collaboration : working together across time and space / Noella J. Gray, Catherine Corson, Lisa M. Campbell, Peter R. Wilshusen, Rebecca L. Gruby, and Shannon Hagerman -- Networks : collecting data for social network analysis / Matthew Paterson -- Experiences : reflecting and comparing research on negotiations / Arne Langlet, Timo Leiter, Ina Tessnow -Von Wysocki, and Harriet Thew -- Adapting : responding to unforeseen research circumstances / Alice B. M. Vadrot -- Conclusions : reflecting on the future (study) of global environmental agreement-making / Alice B. M. Vadrot and Hannah Hughes.