ALBERT

Note: Contents: 1 Global Distribution of Lakes / M. MEYBECK. - 1 Introduction. - 2 Background Material and Approaches to Global Lake Census. - 2.1 Data Used. - 2.2 Approaches to Global Lake Census. - 3 General Laws of Lake Distribution. - 3.1 Lake Density . - 3.2 Limnic Ratio. - 4 Distribution of Lakes of Tectonic Origin. - 5 Lakes of Glacial Origin. - 5.1 Lake Densities. - 5.2 Global Deglaciated Area. - 5.3 Total Number of Glacial Lakes. - 6 Fluvial Lakes. - 7 Global Distribution of Crater Lakes. - 8 Global Distribution of Saline Lakes. - 8.1 Coastal Lagoons. - 8.2 Salinized Lakes due to Evaporation. - 9 Global Lake Distribution. - 9.1 Extrapolation Approach. - 9.2 Lake Type Approach. - 9.3 Climatic Typology Approach. - 9.4 Lake Distribution in Endorheic Areas. - 9.5 Global Dissolved Salt Distribution in Lakes. - 10 Major Changes in Global Lake Distribution in the Geological Past. - 10.1 Lake Ages. - 10.2 Historical Changes. - 10.3 Postglacial Changes. - 11 Discussion and Conclusions. - References. - 2 Hydrological Processes and the Water Budget of Lakes / T. C. WINTER. - 1 Introduction. - 2 Hydrological System with Regard to Lakes. - 2.1 Interaction of Lakes with Atmospheric Water. - 2.2 Interaction of Lakes with Surface Water. - 2.3 Interaction of Lakes with Subsurface Water. - 2.4 Change in Lake Volume. - 3 Summary. - References. - 3 Hydrological and Thermal Response of Lakes to Climate: Description and Modeling / S. W. HOSTETLER. - 1 Introduction. - 2 Hydrological Response. - 3 The Hydrological Budget. - 4 Hydrological Models. - 5 Thermal Response. - 5.1 Energy Budget and Energy Budget Models. - 5.2 Models and Modeling. - 6 Use of Models to Link Lakes with Climate Change. - 7 Input Data Sets. - 8 Sample Applications. - 9 Summary. - References. - 4 Mixing Mechanisms in Lakes / D. M. IMBODEN and A. WÜEST. - 1 Transport and Mixing. - 2 Lakes as Physical Systems. - 3 Fluid Dynamics: Mathematical Description of Advection and Diffusion. - 3.1 Equations of Fluid Motion. - 3.2 Turbulence, Reynolds' Stress, and Eddy Diffusion. - 3.3 Vertical Momentum Equation. - 3.4 Nonlocal Diffusion and Transilient Mixing. - 4 Density and Stability of Water Column. - 4.1 Equation of State of Water. - 4.2 Potential Temperature and Local Vertical Stability. - 5 Energy Fluxes: Driving Forces Behind Transport and Mixing. - 5.1 Thermal Energy. - 5.2 Potential Energy. - 5.3 Kinetic Energy. - 5.4 Turbulent Kinetic Energy Balance in Stratified Water. - 5.5 Internal Turbulent Energy Fluxes: Turbulence Cascade. - 6 Mixing Processes in Lakes. - 6.1 Waves and Mixing. - 6.2 Mixing in the Surface Layer. - 6.3 Diapycnal Mixing. - 6.4 Boundary Mixing. - 6.5 Double Diffusion. - 6.6 Isopycnal Mixing. - 7 Mixing and Its Ecological Relevance. - 7.1 Time Scales of Mixing. - 7.2 Reactive Species and Patchiness. - 7.3 Mixing and Growth: The Search for an Ecological Steering Factor. - References. - 5 Stable Isotopes of Fresh and Saline Lakes / J. R. GAT. - 1 Introduction. - 1.1 Isotope Separatio During Evaporation. - 2 Small-Area Lakes. - 2.1 Seasonal and Annual Changes. - 2.2 Deep Freshwater Lakes. - 2.3 Transient Surface-Water Bodies. - 3 Interactive and Feedback Systems. - 3.1 Network of Surface-Water Bodies. - 3.2 Recycling of Reevaporated Moisture into the Atmosphere. - 3.3 Large Lakes. - 3.4 Large-Area Lakes with Restricted Circulation. - 4 Saline Lakes. - 4.1 Isotope Hydrology of Large Salt Lakes. - 4.2 Ephemeral Salt Lakes and Sabkhas. - 5 Isotopie Paleolimnology. - 6 Conclusions: From Lakes to Oceans. - References. - 6 Exchange of Chemicals Between the Atmosphere and Lakes / P. VLAHOS, D. MACKAY, S. J. EISENREICH, and KC. HORNBUCKLE. - 1 Introduction. - 2 Air-Water Partitioning Equilibria. - 3 Diffusion Between Water and Air. - 4 Volatilization and Absorption: Double-Resistance Approach. - 5 Factors Affecting Mass-Transfer Coefficients. - 6 Partitioning of Chemical to Paniculate Matter in Air and Water. - 6.1 Air. - 6.2 Water. - 7 Atmospheric Deposition Processes. - 7.1 Dry Deposition. - 7.2 Wet Deposition. - 8 Specimen Calculation. - 8.1 Step 1: Physicochemical Properties. - 8.2 Step 2: Mass-Transfer Coefficients. - 8.3 Step 3: Sorption in Air and Water. - 8.4 Step 4: Equilibrium Status. - 8.5 Step 5: Volatilization and Deposition Rates. - 9 Role of Air-Water Exchange in Lake Mass Balances. - 10 Case Studies. - 10.1 Mass Balance on Siskiwit Lake, Isle Royale. - 10.2 Mass Balance on Lake Superior. - 10.3 Air-Water Exchange in Green Bay, Lake Michigan. - 10.4 Air-Water Exchange in Lake Superior. - 11 Conclusions. - References. - 7 Atmospheric Depositions: Impact of Acids on Lakes / W. STUMM and J. SCHNOOR. - Abstract. - 1 Introduction: Anthropogenic Generation of Acidity. - 1.1 Genesis of Acid Precipitation. - 2 Acidity and Alkalinity: Neutralizing Capacities. - 2.1 Transfer of Acidity (or Alkalinity) from Pollution Through the Atmosphere to Ecosystems. - 3 Acidification of Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems. - 3.1 Disturbance of H+ Balance from Temporal or Spatial Decoupling of the Production and Mineralization of the Biomass. - 3.2 In Situ H+ Ion Neutralization in Lakes. - 3.3 Krug and Frink Revisited. - 4 Brønsted Acids and Lewis Acids: Pollution by Heavy Metals, as Influenced by Acidity. - 4.1 Cycling of Metals. - 4.2 Pb in Soils. - 5 Impact of Acidity on Ecology in Watersheds. - 5.1 Soils. - 5.2 Lakes. - 5.3 Nitrogen Saturation of Forests. - 6 Critical Loads. - 6.1 Critical Load Maps. - 6.2 Models for Critical Load Evaluation. - 7 Case Studies. - 7.1 Chemical Weathering of Crystalline Rocks in the Catchment Area of Acidic Ticino Lakes, Switzerland. - 7.2 Watershed Manipulation Project at Bear Brooks, Maine. - 8 Summary. - References. - 8 Redox-Driven Cycling of Trace Elements in Lakes / J. HAMILTON-TAYLOR and W. DAVISON. - 1 Introduction. - 2 Major Biogeochemical Cycles and Pathways. - 3 Iron and Manganese. - 3.1 Transformations and Cycling. - 3.2 Iron and Manganese Compounds as Carrier Phases. - 4 Sediment-Water Interface. - 4.1 Diffusive Flux from Sediments. - 4.2 Evidence of Little or No Diffusive Efflux from Sediments. - 4.3 Transient Remobilization. - 4.4 Diffusive Flux into Sediments. - 5 Pathways Involving Redox Reactions Directly: Case Studies. - 5.1 Arsenic. - 5.2 Chromium. - 5.3 239,240Pu. - 5.4 Selenium 6 Pathways Involving Redox Reactions Indirectly: Case Studies. - 6.1 137Cs. - 6.2 Stable Pb, 210Pb, and 210Po. - 6.3 Zinc. - 7 Summary and Conclusions. - References. - 9 Comparative Geochemistry of Marine Saline Lakes / F. T. MACKENZIE, S. VINK, R. WOLLAST, and L. CHOU. - 1 Introduction. - 2 General Characteristics of Marine Saline Lakes. - 3 Comparative Sediment-Pore-Water Reactions. - 3.1 Mangrove Lake, Bermuda. - 3.2 Solar Lake, Sinai. - 4 Conclusions. - References. - 10 Organic Matter Accumulation Records in Lake Sediments / P. A. MEYERS and R. ISHIWATARI. - 1 Introduction. - 1.1 Significance of Organic Matter in Lake Sediments. - 1.2 Origins of Organic Matter to Lake Sediments. - 1.3 Alterations of Organic Matter During Deposition. - 1.4 Similarities and Differences Between Organic Matter in Sediments of Lakes and Oceans. - 1.5 Dating of Lake-Sediment Records. - 2 Indicators of Sources and Alterations of Total Organic Matter in Lake Sediments. - 2.1 Source Information Preserved in C/N Ratios of Sedimentary Organic Matter. - 2.2 Source Information from Carbon-Stable Isotopic Compositions. - 2.3 Source Information from Nitrogen-Stable Isotopic Compositions. - 3 Origin and Alterations of Humic Substances. - 4 Sources and Alterations of Lipid Biomarkers. - 4.1 Alteration of Lipids During Deposition. - 4.2 Changes in Sources vs Selective Diagenesis. - 4.3 Effects of Sediment Grain Size on Geolipid Compositions. - 4.4 Source Records of Alkanes in Lake Sediments. - 4.5 Preserv

Note: Contents Preface Acknowledgements Part 1: Introduction 1 Sedimentology in the earth sciences 1.1 Introduction: sedimentology and earth cycling 1.2 Erosional drainage basins and depositional sedimentary basins 1.3 Global sediment discharge and earth recycling: the rock cycle 1.4 Comparative interplanetary sedimentology 1.5 Practical sedimentology 1.6 A brief history of sedimentology Part 2: Origin and Types of Sediment Grains 2 Water-rock interactions: chemical and physical breakdown of catchment bedrock to soil and elastic sediment grains 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Natural waters as proton donors: pH, acid hydrolysis and limestone weathering 2.3 Metallic ions, electron transfer and Eh-pH diagrams 2.4 Behaviour of silicate minerals during chemical weathering: breakdown products and newly formed minerals 2.5 Acid rain and whole-catchment studies of chemical weathering 2.6 The rates and mechanisms of chemical weathering 2.7 A simple index of chemical alteration (CIA) 2.8 Vegetation, chemical weathering and the Precambrian controversy 2.9 Physical weathering 2.10 Soils as valves and filters for the natural landscape 3 The inorganic and organic precipitation of sediment: chemical, biochemical and biological 3.1 Marine and freshwater chemical composition: chemical fluxes to and from the oceans 3.2 The carbonate system in the oceans 3.3 Advances in understanding carbonate reaction kinetics and their significance 3.4 Pre-Recent and future CaCO3 reactions 3.5 Ooids 3.6 Carbonate grains from plants and animals 3.7 Carbonate muds, oozes and chalks 3.8 Other carbonate grains of biological origins 3.9 Organic productivity, sea-level and atmospheric controls of biogenic CaCO3 deposition rates 3.10 CaCO3 dissolution in the deep ocean and the oceanic CaCO3 compensation mechanism 3.11 Evaporite salts and their inorganic precipitation 3.12 Silica and pelagic plankton 3.13 Iron minerals and biomineralizers 3.14 Phosphates Part 3: User's Guide to Sedimentological Fluid Dynamics 4 Back to basics: fluid flow in general 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Material properties of fluids 4.3 Plastic behaviour 4.4 Dimensionless numbers 4.5 Reference frames for flows 4.6 The concepts of flow steadiness and uniformity 4. 7 Visualization of flow patterns 4.8 Ideal (potential) flow 4.9 Dynamics of fluid motion 4.10 Strategies for coping with the dynamic equations 5 Flow in the real world: laminar and turbulent behaviour 5.1 Osborne Reynolds and types of flow 5.2 The distribution of velocity in viscous flows: the boundary layer 5.3 Turbulent flow 5.4 The distribution of velocity in turbulent flows 5.5 Shear velocity, bed roughness, bed shear stress and flow power 5.6 The periodic coherent structures of turbulent shear flows 5.7 Shear flow instabilities, flow separation and secondary currents 6 Sediment grains in fluids: settling, transport and feedback 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Fall of grains through stationary fluids 6.3 Natural flows carrying particulate material are complex 6.4 Fluids as transporting machines 6.5 Initiation of particle motion 6.6 Initiation of motion by air flow 6.7 Paths of grain motion 6.8 Solid transmitted stresses 6.9 A dynamic sediment suspension theory 6.10 A warning: nonequilibrium effects may dominate natural sediment transport systems 6.11 Steady state, deposition or erosion: the sediment continuity equation Part 4: Sediment Transport and Sedimentary Structures 7 Bedforms and structures formed by unidirectional water flows over granular sediment 7.1 The 'trinity' of flow, transport and bedform 7.2 Current ripples 7.3 Lower-stage plane beds and cluster bedforms 7.4 Dunoids (bars, 2D dunes) 7.5 Dunes 7.6 Upper-stage plane beds 7.7 Antidunes, transverse ribs, chutes and pools, and related forms 7.8 Bedforms and sediment transport in poorly sorted sediment 7.9 Bedform phase diagrams 7.10 Bedform 'lag' effects 7.11 Bedform theory 7.12 Measurement of palaeocurrents and problems arising from trough-shaped sets of cross- stratification 8 Bedforms and structures formed by atmospheric flows 8.1 Introduction: some contrasts between air and water flows 8.2 Aeolian bedforms in general 8.3 Ballistic ripples and ridges 8.4 Dunes in general 8.5 Flow-transverse dunes 8.6 Flow-parallel dunes 8.7 Complex flow dunes 8.8 Vegetated parabolic dunes 9 Oscillatory water waves, combined flows and tides: their bedforms and structures 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Simple wave theory 9.3 Near-bed flow and bedforms 9.4 Combined flows, wave-current ripples and hummocky cross-stratification 9.5 Tidal flows 10 Bedforms and cohesive sediment transport and erosion 10.1 The 'special' case of clays and cohesive beds 10.2 Flow erosion of cohesive beds 10.3 Erosion by 'tools' 11 Sediment gravity flows and their deposits 11.1 Introduction and static grain aggregates 11.2 Static friction and stability of granular masses 11.3 Grain flow avalanches: from cross-bedding to megabreccias 11.4 Debris flows 11.5 Turbidity flows 12 Liquefaction, liquefaction structures and other 'soft' sediment deformation structures 12.1 Liquefaction 12.2 Sedimentary structures formed by and during liquefaction 12.3 Submarine landslides, growth faults and slumps 12.4 Desiccation and synaeresis shrinkage structures Part 5: External Controls on Sediment Derivation, Transport and Deposition 13 Climate and sedimentary processes 13.1 Introduction: climate as a fundamental variable in sedimentology 13.2 Solar radiation: ultimate fuel for the climate machine 13.3 Earth's reradiation and the 'greenhouse' concept 13.4 Radiation balance, heat transfer and simple climatic models 13.5 Climate and the water cycle, 13.6 General atmospheric circulations 13.7 Global climates: a summary 13.8 Climate, mountains and plateaux 13.9 Climate change 13.10 Sedimentological evidence for palaeoclimate 14 Changing sea level and sedimentary sequences 14.1 Introduction: sea level as datum 14.2 Sea-level changes 14.3 Rates and magnitude of sea-level change 14.4 Origins of global sea-level change: slow vs. fast eustasy 14.5 Sequence stratigraphy: layers, cheesewires and bandwagons 15 Tectonics, denudation rates and sediment yields 15.1 Basic geodynamics of uplift 15.2 Elevation and gradients 15.3 Catchment processes 15.4 Erosion and denudation 15.5 Large-scale studies of denudation rates 15.6 Basinal studies of denudation and sediment flux: the inverse approach 15.7 Sediment supply, vegetation and climate change: implications for basin stratigraphy 15.8 Marine strontium isotope ratio and continental erosion rates Part 6: Sediment Deposition, Environments and Facies in Continental Environments 16 Aeolian sediments in low-latitude deserts 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Physical processes and erg formation 16.3 Modern desert bedform associations and facies 16.4 Aeolian architecture 16.5 Climate change, erg abandonment and desert-lake-river sedimentary cycles 16.6 Ancient desert facies 17 Rivers 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Channel magnitude and gradient 17.3 Channel form 17.4 Channel sediment transport processes, bedforms and internal structures 17.5 The floodplain 17.6 Channel belts, alluvial ridges, combing and avulsion 17.7 River channel changes, adjustable variables and equilibrium 17.8 The many causes of channel incision-aggradation cycles 17.9 Fluvial architecture: scale, controls and time 17.10 Fluvial deposits in the geological record 18 Alluvial fans and fan deltas 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Controls on the size (area) of fans 18.3 Physical processes on alluvial fans 18.4 Debris-flow-dominated alluvial fans 18.5 Stream-flow-dominated alluvial fans 18.6 Recognition of ancient alluvial fans 18.7 Fan deltas 19 Lakes 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Lake stratification 19.3 Clastic input by rivers and the effect of turbidity currents 19.4 Wind-forced physical processes 19.5 Chemical processes and cycles 19.6 Biological processes and cycles 19.7 Modern temperate lakes and their continental sedimentary facies 19.8 Lakes in the East African rifts 19.9 Lake Baikal 19.10 Shallow saline lakes 19.11 The succes

Note: Magma Generation and Break-Up Processes --- R. S. White: Magmatism during and after continental break-up / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:1-16, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.01 --- Millard F. Coffin and Olav Eldholm: Volcanism and continental break-up: a global compilation of large igneous provinces / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:17-30, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.02 --- Martin A. Menzies: The lower lithosphere as a major source for continental flood basalts: a re-appraisal / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:31-39, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.03 --- A. D. Saunders, M. Storey, R. W. Kent, and M. J. Norry: Consequences of plume-lithosphere interactions / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:41-60, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.04 --- S. A. Gibson, R. N. Thompson, P. T. Leat, A. P. Dickin, M. A. Morrison, G. L. Hendry, and J. G. Mitchell: Asthenosphere-derived magmatism in the Rio Grande rift, western USA: implications for continental break-up / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:61-89, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.05 --- D. K. Bailey: Episodic alkaline igneous activity across Africa: implications for the causes of continental break-up / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:91-98, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.06 --- Don L. Anderson, Yu-Shen Zhang, and Toshiro Tanimoto: Plume heads, continental lithosphere, flood basalts and tomography / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:99-124, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.07 --- Martin H. P. Bott: The stress regime associated with continental break-up / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:125-136, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.08 --- Early Stages of Gondwana Break-Up --- K. G. Cox: Karoo igneous activity, and the early stages of the break-up of Gondwanaland / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:137-148, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.09 --- B. C. Storey, T. Alabaster, M. J. Hole, R. J. Pankhurst, and H. E. Wever: Role of subduction-plate boundary forces during the initial stages of Gondwana break-up: evidence from the proto-Pacific margin of Antarctica / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:149-163, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.10 --- David H. Elliot: Jurassic magmatism and tectonism associated with Gondwanaland break-up: an Antarctic perspective / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:165-184, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.11 --- T. S. Brewer, J. M. Hergt, C. J. Hawkesworth, D. Rex, and B. C. Storey: Coats Land dolerites and the generation of Antarctic continental flood basalts / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:185-208, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.12 --- C. W. Rapela and R. J. Pankhurst: The granites of northern Patagonia and the Gastre Fault System in relation to the break-up of Gondwana / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:209-220, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.13 --- South Atlantic Opening --- C. J. Hawkesworth, K. Gallagher, S. Kelley, M. Mantovani, D. W. Peate, M. Regelous, and N. W. Rogers: Paraná magmatism and the opening of the South Atlantic / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:221-240, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.14 --- Marjorie Wilson: Magmatism and continental rifting during the opening of the South Atlantic Ocean: a consequence of Lower Cretaceous super-plume activity? / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:241-255, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.15 --- M. P. R. Light, M. P. Maslanyj, and N. L. Banks: New geophysical evidence for extensional tectonics on the divergent margin offshore Namibia / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:257-270, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.16 --- Northwest Indian Ocean and Gulf of Aden --- C. W. Devey and W. E. Stephens: Deccan-related magmatism west of the Seychelles-India rift / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:271-291, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.17 --- M. A. Menzies, J. Baker, D. Bosence, C. Dart, I. Davison, A. Hurford, M. Al’Kadasi, K. McClay, G. Nichols, A. Al’Subbary, and A. Yelland: The timing of magmatism, uplift and crustal extension: preliminary observations from Yemen / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:293-304, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.18 --- North Atlantic Opening --- Jakob Skogseid, Tom Pedersen, Olav Eldholm, and Bjørn T. Larsen: Tectonism and magmatism during NE Atlantic continental break-up: the Vøring Margin / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:305-320, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.19 --- Lotte M. Larsen, Asger K. Pedersen, Gunver K. Pedersen, and Stefan Piasecki: Timing and duration of Early Tertiary volcanism in the North Atlantic: new evidence from West Greenland / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:321-333, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.20 --- R. C. O. Gill, A. K. Pedersen, and J. G. Larsen: Tertiary picrites in West Greenland: melting at the periphery of a plume? / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:335-348, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.21 --- Paul Martin Holm, Niels Hald, and Troels F. D. Nielsen: Contrasts in composition and evolution of Tertiary CFBs between West and East Greenland and their relations to the establishment of the Icelandic mantle plume / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:349-362, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.22 --- H. C. Larsen and C. Marcussen: Sill-intrusion, flood basalt emplacement and deep crustal structure of the Scoresby Sund region, East Greenland / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:365-386, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.23 --- Aidan M. Joy: Right place, wrong time: anomalous post-rift subsidence in sedimentary basins around the North Atlantic Ocean / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 68:387-393, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1992.068.01.24