Abstract
We present a brief summary of some results describing interannual to decade scale variability of ocean parameters, focusing on subsurface temperature and salinity. We focus attention on the North Atlantic, where it is very clear that a major redistribution of heat and salt has been occurring since 1960, from the sea surface to at least 3000 m depth. We then discuss implications of these examples of historical variability toward development of an ocean monitoring system for the ocean interior. The purpose of this paper reflects our belief that the justification of, and planning for, any such monitoring system for the world ocean, should be based on analyses of historical oceanographic data. These analyses should document the time and space scales associated with variability of the world ocean.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Antonov, J.: 1990, ‘Recent Climatic Changes of Vertical Thermal Structure of the North Atlantic and the North Pacific Oceans’,Meteorologiya i Gidrologiya N4, 78–87 (in Russian).
Antonov, J.: 1993, ‘Linear Trends of Temperature at Intermediate and Deep Layers of the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Pacific Ocean’,J. Clim. 6, 1928–1942.
Antonov, J. and Groisman, P. Ya.: 1988, ‘Sea-Water Temperature Changes below the Seasonal Thermocline in the North Atlantic’,Meteorologiya i Gidrologiya N3, 57–63 (in Russian).
Bethoux, J. P. and Gentili, B.: 1994, ‘The Mediterranean Sea, a Test Area for Marine and Climatic Variation’, in Malanotte-Rizzoli, P. and Robinson, A. R. (eds.),Ocean Processes in Climate Dynamics: Global and Mediterranean Examples, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, pp. 239–254.
Bethouix, J. P., Gentili, B., Raunet, J., and Tailliez, D.: 1990, ‘Warming Trend in the Western Mediterranean Deep Water’,Nature 347, 660–662.
Bethoux, J. P. and Tailliez, D.: 1994, ‘Deep-Water in the Western Mediterranean Sea, Yearly Climatic Signature and Enigmatic Spreading’, in Malanotte-Rizzoli, P. and Robinson, A. R. (eds.),Ocean Processes in Climate Dynamics: Global and Mediterranean Examples, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, pp. 355–369.
Bindoff, N. L. and Church, J. A.: 1992, ‘Warming of the Water Column in the Southwest Pacific Ocean’,Nature 357, 59–62.
Bindoff, N. L. and McDougall, T. J.: 1994, ‘Diagnosing Climate Change and Ocean Ventilation Using Hydrographic Data’,J. Phys. Oceanogr. 24, 1137–1152.
Bingham, F. M., Suga, T., and Hanawa, K.: 1992, ‘Comparison of Upper Ocean Thermal Conditions in the Western North Pacific Between Two Pentads: 1938–42 and 1978–92,J. Oceanogr. 48, 404–425.
Brewer, P. G., Broecker, W. S., Jenkins, W. J., Rhines, P. B., Rooth, C. G., Swift, J. H., Takahasi, T., and Williams, R. T.: 1983, ‘A Climatic Freshening of the Deep North Atlantic (North of 50° N), over the Past 20 Years’,Science 222, 1237–1239.
Brodeur, R. D. and Ware, D. M.: 1992, ‘Long-Term Variability in Zooplankton Biomass in the Subarctic Pacific Ocean’,Fisheries Oceanogr. 1, 32–38.
Cayan, D. R.: 1992, ‘Latent and Sensible Heat Flux Anomalies over the Northern Oceans: Driving the Sea Surface Temperature’,J. Phys. Oceanogr. 22, 859.
Da Silva, A., Young, C., and Levitus, S.: 1994,Atlas of Surface Marine Data 1994, Vol. 1: Algorithms and Procedures. NOAA Atlas NESDIS 6, (in press).
Davis, R. E., Webb, D. C., Regier, L. A., and Dufour, J.: 1992, ‘The Autonomous Lagrangian Circulation Explorer (ALACE)’,J. Ocean and Atmosph. Tech. 9, 264–285.
Delcroix, T. and Henin, C.: 1989, ‘Mechanisms of Subsurface Thermal Structure and Sea Surface Thermohaline Variabilities in the Southwestern Tropical Pacific During 1975-85’,J. Mar. Res. 47, 777–812.
Delcroix, T. and Henin, C.: 1990, ‘Sea Surface Thermohaline and Subsurface Thermal Structure Variabilities in the Southwestern Tropical Pacific Ocean During 1979–1985’, inAir-Sea Interaction in Tropical Western Pacific: Proceedings of U.S.-PRC International TOGA Symposium. 1988, Beijing.
Delcroix, T. and Henin, C.: 1991, ‘Seasonal and Interannual Variations of Sea Surface Salinity in the Tropical Pacific Ocean’,J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans 96, 22135–22150.
Deser, C. and Blackmon, M.: 1994, ‘Surface Climate Variations over the North Atlantic Ocean During Winter: 1900-1989,J. Clim. 6, 1743–1753.
Dessier, A. and Donguy, J. R.: 1994, ‘The Sea Surface Salinity in the Tropical Atlantic between 10° S and 30° N Seasonal and Interannual Variations (1977–1989)’,Deep-Sea Res. 41.
Dickson, R. R., Meincke, J., Malmberg, S. Aa., and Lee, A. J.: 1988, ‘The “Great Salinity Anomaly” in the Northern North Atlantic’,Prog. in Oceanogr. 20, 103–151.
Dooley, H. D., Martin, J. H. A., and Ellet, D. J.: 1984, ‘Abnormal Hydrographic Conditions in the Northeast Atlantic during the 1970's’,Rapp. P. v. Reun. Cons. int. Explor. Mer 185, 179–187.
Douglas, A. V., Cayan, D. R., and Namias, J.: 1982, ‘Large-Scale Changes in North Pacific and North American Weather Patterns in Recent Decades’,Mon. Wea. Rev. 110, 1851–1862.
Ezer, T. and Mellor, G. L.: 1994, ‘Diagnostic and Prognostic Calculations of the North Atlantic Circulation and Sea Level Using a Sigma Coordinate Ocean Model’,J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans 99, 14159–14171.
Ezer, T., Mellor, G. L., and Greatbatch, R. J.: 1995, ‘On the Interpentadal Variability of the North Atlantic Ocean: Modelling Changes in Transport, Meridional Heat Flux and Coastal Sea Level Between 1955–1959 and 1970–1974’,J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, (submitted).
Folland, C. K., Parker, D. E., and Kates, F. E.: 1984, ‘Worldwide Marine Temperature Fluctuations 1856-1981’,Nature 310, 670–673.
Frankignoul, C.: 1981, ‘Low Frequency Temperature Fluctuations off Bermuda’,J. Geophys. Res. 86, 6522–6528.
Fu, L., Christensen, E., Yamarone, C., Lefebvre, M., Menard, Dorer, Y., and Escudier, P.: 1994, ‘TOPEX/POSEIDON Mission Overview’,J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans 99(C12, 24369–24382.
Greatbatch, R., Fanning, A. F., Goulding, A. D., and Levitus, S.: 1991, ‘A Diagnosis of Interpentadal Circulation Changes in the North Atlantic’,J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans 96, 22009–220024.
Haake, B., Ittekkot, V., Rixen, T., Ramaswamy, V., Nair, R. R., Curry, W. B.: 1993, ‘Seasonal and Interannual Variability of Particle Fluxes to the Deep Arabian Sea’,Deep-Sea Res. 40, 1323–1344.
Harris, G. P.: 1988, ‘Interannual Variability in Climate and Fisheries in Tasmania’,Nature 333(6175, 754–757.
Hecht, A.: 1992, ‘Abrupt Changes in the Characteristics of Atlantic and Levantine Intermediate Waters in the Southeastern Levantine Basin’,Oceanol. Acta 15, 25–42.
IOC: 1992, ‘Oceanic Interdecadal Climate Variability’,Intergovernm. Oceanogr. Commiss. Techn. Ser. 40, 40 pp.
Karl, D. M., Letelier, R., Hebel, D., Tupas, L., Dore, J., Christian, J., Winn, C.: 1995, ‘Ecosystem Changes in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre Attributed to the 1991–92 El Niño’,Nature, 230-234.
Koltermann, K. P. and Sy, A.: 1994, ‘Western North Atlantic Cools at Intermediate Depths’,International WOCE Newsletter 15, unpublished manuscript, 5-6.
Lacombe, H., Tchernia, P., and Gamberoni, L.: 1985, ‘Variable Bottom Water in the Western Mediterranean Basin’,Prog. in Oceanogr. 14, 319–338.
Lazier, J. R. N.: 1980, ‘Oceanographic Conditions at O.W.S. Bravo, 1964-1974’,Atmos. Ocean 18, 227–238.
Lazier, J. R. N.: 1988, ‘Temperature and Salinity Changes in the Deep Labrador Sea, 1962–1986’, 35, 1247-1252.
Lazier, J. R. N.: 1995, ‘The Salinity Decrease in the Labrador Sea over the Past Thirty Years’,Natural Climate Variability on Decade-to-Century Time-Scales, National Academy of Sciences Press, (in press).
Leaman, K. D. and Schott, F. A.: 1991, ‘Hydrographic Structure of the Convection Regime in the Gulf of Lions: Winter 1987’,J. Phys. Oceanogr. 21, 575–598.
Levitus, S.: 1989a, ‘Interpentadal Variability of Temperature and Salinity at Intermediate Depths of the North Atlantic Ocean, 1970–74 versus 1955–59’,J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans 94, 6091–6131.
Levitus, S.: 1989b, ‘Interpentadal Variability of Salinity in the Upper 150m of the North Atlantic Ocean, 1970–74 versus 1955–59’,J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans 94, 9679–9685.
Levitus, S.: 1989c, ‘Interpentadal Variability of Temperature and Salinity in the Deep North Atlantic Ocean, 1970–74 versus 1955–59’,J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans 94, 16125–16131.
Levitus, S.: 1990, ‘Interpentadal Variability of Steric Sea Level and Geopotential Thickness of the North Atlantic Ocean, 1970–74 versus 1955–59’,J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans 95, 5233–5238.
Levitus, S., Antonov, J., and Boyer, T. P.: 1994a, ‘Interannual Variability of Temperature at 125 m Depth in the North Atlantic Ocean’,Science 266, 96–99.
Levitus, S., Boyer, T. P., and Antonov, J.: 1994b,World Ocean Atlas 1994, Volume 5: Interannual Variability of Upper Ocean Thermal Structure. NOAA NESDIS Atlas series, 176 pp.
Levitus, S., Antonov, J., Zhou, X., Dooley, H., Selemenov, K., Tereschenkov, V.: 1995, ‘Decadal-Scale Variability of the North Atlantic Ocean’,Natural Climate Variability on Decade-to-Century Time Scales, National Academy of Sciences Press, (in press).
Lukas, R.: 1994, ‘HOT Results Show Interannual Variability of Pacific Deep and Bottom waters’,WOCE Notes: The U.S. role in the World Ocean Circulation Experiment 6(2), (unpublished manuscript).
Mellor, G. L., Mechoso, C. R., and Keto, E.: 1982, ‘A Diagnostic Model of the General Circulation of the Atlantic Ocean’,Deep-Sea Res. 29, 1171–1192.
Morgan, M. R., Drinkwater, K. F., and Pocklington, R.: 1993,Climatol. Bull. 27, 135–153.
Parilla, G., Lavin, A., Bryden, H., Garcia, M., and Millard, R.: 1994, ‘Rising Temperatures in the Subtropical North Atlantic’,Nature.
Parker, D. E., Folland, C. K., and Jackson, M.: 1995, ‘Marine Surface Temperature: Observed Variations and Data Requirements’,Clim. Change 31 (this issue).
Petrie, B. and Drinkwater, K. F.: 1993, ‘Temperature and Salinity Variability on the Scotian Shelf and in the Gulf of Maine 1945-1990’,J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 20079-20089.
Polovina, J. J., Mitchum, G. T., Graham, N. E., Craig, M. P., Demartini, E. E., and Flint, E. N.: 1994, ‘Physical and Biological Consequences of a Climate Event in the Central North Pacific’,Fisher. Oceanogr. 3, 15–21.
Qiu, B. and Joyce, T. M.: 1992, ‘Interannual Variability in the Mid- and Low-Latitude Western North Pacific’,J. Phys. Oceanogr. 22, 1062–1160.
Read, J. F., and Gould, W. J.: 1992, ‘Cooling and Freshening of the Subpolar North Atlantic Ocean since the 1960s’,Nature, 55-57.
Rohling, E. J. and Bryden, H. L.: 1992, ‘Man-Induced Salinity and Temperature Increases in the Western Mediterranean Deep Water’,J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans 97, 11191–11198.
Ridgway, K. and Godfrey, S.: 1995,Long Term Temperature and Circulation Changes in the East Australian Current, (in preparation).
Roemmich, D.: 1985, ‘Sea Level and the Variability of the Ocean’, inGlaciers, Ice Sheets, and Sea Level: Effect of a CO 2-induced Climatic Change, DOE/ER/G0235-1, Dept. of Energy, Washington, D. C., pp. 104–115.
Roemmich, D. and Cornuelle, B.: 1990, ‘Observing the Fluctuations of Gyre-Scale Ocean Circulation: A Study of the Subtropical South Pacific’,J. Phys. Oceanogr. 20, 1919–1934.
Roemmich, D. and Wunsch, C.: 1984, ‘Apparent Changes in the Climatic State of the Deep North Atlantic’,Nature 307, 447–450.
Rossby, C. L.: 1959, ‘Current Problems in Meteorology’, inThe Atmosphere and Sea in Motion, Rockefeller Institute Press, New York, pp. 9–50.
Rossby, T., Siedler, G., Zenk, W.: 1995, ‘The Volunteer Observing Ship and Future Ocean Monitoring’,Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc. 76, 5–11.
Royer, T. C.: 1989, ‘Upper Ocean Temperature Variability in the Northeast Pacific Ocean: Is It an Indicator of Global Warming?’,J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans 94, 18175–18183.
Searle, B.: 1992, ‘Global Temperature and Salinity Pilot Project’, inProceedings of the Ocean Climate Data Workshop, Sponsored by NOAA and NAS, Greenbelt, Md, U.S.A., pp. 97–108.
Shuto, K.: 1994, ‘Scientific Background of JMA Surveys along PR2’,International WOCE Newsletter 15, 6–10, (unpublished manuscript).
Smith, N. R., Needler, G. T., and the Ocean Observing System Development Panel: 1995,Clim. Change 31 (this issue).
Stommel, H.: 1988,Station ‘S’ off Bermuda: Physical Measurements 1954-1984, Published by Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and Bermuda Biological Station Library of Congress Number 88-51552, 189 pp.
Suga, T. and Hanawa, K.: 1995, ‘Interannual Variation of North Pacific Subtropical Mode Water in the 137° E Section’,J. Phys. Oceanogr. 25, 1012–1017.
Swift, J. H.: 1984, ‘A Recentθ-S Shift in the Deep Water of the Northern North Atlantic’, in Hansen, J. E. and Takahashi, T. (eds.),Climatic Processes and Climate Sensitivity, Geophys, Monogr. Series 29, AGU, Washington, D.C., pp. 39-47.
Swift, J. H.: 1985, ‘A Few Comments on a Recent Deep-Water Freshening’,Glaciers, Ice Sheets, and Sea Level: Effect of a CO 2-induced Climatic Change, DOE/ER/G0235-1, Dept. of Energy, Washington, D.C., pp. 104–115.
The Ocean Observing System Development Panel: 1995,Scientific Design for the Common Module of the Global Climate Observing System and the Global Climate Observing System: An Ocean Observing System for Climate, Department of Oceanography. Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 265 pp.
Trenberth, K. E.: 1990, ‘Recent Observed Interdecadal Climate Changes in the Northern Hemisphere’,Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc. 71, 988–993.
Venrick, E. L., McGowan, J. A., Cayan, D. R., Hatward, T. L.: 1987, ‘Climate and Chlorophyll’,Science 238, 70–73.
Watanabe, T. and Mizuno, K.: 1994, ‘Decadal Changes in the Thermal Structure in the North Pacific’,International WOCE Newsletter 15, 10–12, (unpublished manuscript),
Weare, B. C., Navato, A. R., and Newell, R. E.: 1976, ‘Empirical Orthogonal Analysis of Pacific Sea Surface Temperatures’,J. Phys. Oceanogr. 6, 671–678.
Woodruff, S. D., Slutz, R. J., Jenne, R. J., and Steurer, P. M.: 1987, ‘A Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set’,Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc. 68, 1239–1250.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Levitus, S., Antonov, J. Observational evidence of interannual to decadal-scale variability of the subsurface temperature-salinity structure of the world ocean. Climatic Change 31, 495–514 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01095159
Received:
Revised:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01095159