Abstract
There are increasing demands to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural soils worldwide. A significant portion of these emissions occur in cold regions during soil’s freezing and thawing. Focusing on over-winter cropland nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, a review of 21 relevant peer-reviewed studies with a total of 88 comparisons was conducted to quantify the efficacy of field management practices (no-till, cover crops (CCs), nitrification, and urease inhibitors (NI + UI)) in reducing emissions. We also assessed these mitigation practices’ efficacy across soil types and between cold humid and cold dry areas. The ratio of non-growing season emissions to full-year N2O emissions reported in the studies used in this review ranged between 5 and 91%. No-till significantly reduced N2O emissions by 28%, and this effect was more pronounced in drier climates. NI + UI also significantly reduced over-winter emissions by 23% compared to conventional fertilizers, and this effect was more evident in medium-textured soils than coarse soils. CCs showed an overall reduction potential of 18%; however, this effect was not significant. This review showed that under the CC practice, N2O emissions were reduced overall in humid climates but increased in drier climates, while no-till and NI + UI practices effectively reduced over-winter emissions in both dry and humid winter regions and all soil types.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The datasets generated and analyzed during this study are included in the manuscript. Any queries for the datasets can be directed to the corresponding author.
Code availability
The R software package metafor 2.4–0 was used for all analyses performed in this study. The code can be made available by the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
Asgedom H, Tenuta M, Flaten DN, Gao X, Kebreab E (2014) Nitrous oxide emissions from a clay soil receiving granular urea formulations and dairy manure. Agron J 106:732–744. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2013.0096
Basche AD, Miguez FE, Kaspar TC, Castellano MJ (2014) Do cover crops increase or decrease nitrous oxide emissions? A meta-analysis. J Soil Wat Conserv 69:471–482. https://doi.org/10.2489/jswc.69.6.471
Behnke GD, Villamil MB (2019) Cover crop rotations affect greenhouse gas emissions and crop production in Illinois, USA. Field Crops Res 241:107580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2019.107580
Bent E, Németh D, Wagner-Riddle C, Dunfield K (2016) Residue management leading to higher field-scale N2O flux is associated with different soil bacterial nitrifier and denitrifier gene community structures. Appl Soil Ecol 108:288–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2016.09.008
Burton DL, Beauchamp EG (1994) Profile nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide concentrations in a soil subject to freezing. Soil Sci Soc Am J 58:115–122. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1994.03615995005800010016x
Chantigny MH, Rochette P, Angers DA, Goyer C, Brin LD, Bertrand N (2016) Nongrowing season N2O and CO2 emissions — temporal dynamics and influence of soil texture and fall-applied manure. Can J Soil Sci 97:452–464. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjss-2016-0110
Chen L, Chen Z, Jia G, Zhou J, Zhao J, Zhang Z (2020) Influences of forest cover on soil freeze-thaw dynamics and greenhouse gas emissions through the regulation of snow regimes: a comparison study of the farmland and forest plantation. Sci Tot Environ 726:138403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138403
Chen Z, Ding W, Xu Y, Müller C, Yu H, Fan J (2016) Increased N2O emissions during soil drying after waterlogging and spring thaw in a record wet year. Soil Biol Biochem 101:152–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2016.07.016
Congreves KA, Brown SE, Németh DD, Dunfield KE, Wagner-Riddle C (2017) Differences in field-scale N2O flux linked to crop residue removal under two tillage systems in cold climates. GCB Bioenerg 9:666–680. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcbb.12354
Davidson EA, Kanter D (2014) Inventories and scenarios of nitrous oxide emissions. Environ Res Lett 9:105012. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/9/10/105012
Decock C (2014) Mitigating nitrous oxide emissions from corn cropping systems in the Midwestern U.S.: potential and data gaps. Environ Sci Technol 48:4247–4256. https://doi.org/10.1021/es4055324
Dietzel R, Wolfe D, Thies JE (2011) The influence of winter soil cover on spring nitrous oxide emissions from an agricultural soil. Soil Biol Biochem 43:1989–1991. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2011.05.017
Ding WX, Chen ZM, Yu HY, Luo JF, Yoo GY, Xiang J, Zhang HJ, Yuan JJ (2015) Nitrous oxide emission and nitrogen use efficiency in response to nitrophosphate, N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide and dicyandiamide of a wheat cultivated soil under sub-humid monsoon conditions. Biogeosciences 12:803–815. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-12-803-2015
Dong D, Kou Y, Yang W, Chen G, Xu H (2018) Effects of urease and nitrification inhibitors on nitrous oxide emissions and nitrifying/denitrifying microbial communities in a rainfed maize soil: a 6-year field observation. Soil till Res 180:82–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2018.02.010
Duan YF, Kong XW, Schramm A, Labouriau R, Eriksen J, Petersen SO (2017) Microbial N transformations and N2O emission after simulated grassland cultivation: effects of the nitrification. Appl Environ Microbiol 83:1–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tetasy.2008.05.028
Ejack L, Whalen JK (2021) Freeze-thaw cycles release nitrous oxide produced in frozen agricultural soils. Biol Fertil Soils 57:389–398. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-020-01537-x
Elmi AA, Madramootoo C, Hamel C, Liu A (2003) Denitrification and nitrous oxide to nitrous oxide plus dinitrogen ratios in the soil profile under three tillage systems. Biol Fertil Soils 38:340–348. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-003-0663-9
Feng J, Li F, Deng A, Feng X, Fang F, Zhang W (2016) Integrated assessment of the impact of enhanced-efficiency nitrogen fertilizer on N2O emission and crop yield. Agric Ecosyst Environ 231:218–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2016.06.038
Ferrari Machado PV, Farrell RE, Bell G, Taveira CJ, Congreves KA, Voroney RP, Deen W, Wagner-Riddle C (2021) Crop residues contribute minimally to spring-thaw nitrous oxide emissions under contrasting tillage and crop rotations. Soil Biol Biochem 152:108057. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2020.108057
Ferrari Machado PV, Neufeld K, Brown SE, Voroney PR, Bruulsema TW, Wagner-Riddle C (2020) High temporal resolution nitrous oxide fluxes from corn (Zea mays L.) in response to the combined use of nitrification and urease inhibitors. Agric Ecosyst Environ 300:106996. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2020.106996
Feng J, Li F, Zhou X, Xu C, Ji L, Chen Z, Fang F (2018) Impact of agronomy practices on the effects of reduced tillage systems on CH4 and N2O emissions from agricultural fields: A global meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 13(5):e0196703. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0196703
Gillette K, Malone RW, Kaspar TC, Ma L, Parkin TB, Jaynes DB, Fang QX, Hatfield JL, Feyereisen GW, Kersebaum KC (2018) N loss to drain flow and N2O emissions from a corn-soybean rotation with winter rye. Sci Tot Environ 618:982–997. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.09.054
Grant RF, Lin S, Hernandez-Ramirez G (2020) Modelling nitrification inhibitor effects on N2O emissions after fall-and spring-applied slurry by reducing nitrifier NH4+ oxidation rate. Biogeosciences 17:2021–2039. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-2021-2020
Gregorich E, Janzenx HH, Helgason B, Ellert B (2015) Nitrogenous gas emissions from soils and greenhouse gas effects. Adv in Agron 132:39–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.agron.2015.02.004
Guardia G, Abalos D, García-Marco S, Quemada M, Alonso-Ayuso M, Cárdenas LM, Dixon ER, Vallejo A (2016) Effect of cover crops on greenhouse gas emissions in an irrigated field under integrated soil fertility management. Biogeosciences 13:5245–5257. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-13-5245-2016
Halvorson AD, Del Grosso SJ (2012) Nitrogen source and placement effects on soil nitrous oxide emissions from no-till corn. J Environ Qual 41:1349–1360. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2012.0129
Huang Y, Ren W, Wang L, Hui D, Grove JH, Yang X, Tao B, Goff B (2018) Greenhouse gas emissions and crop yield in no-tillage systems: a meta-analysis. Agric Ecosyst Environ 268:144–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2018.09.002
Hung CY, Ejack L, Whalen JK (2021) Fall-applied manure with cover crop did not increase nitrous oxide emissions during spring freeze-thaw periods. Appl Soil Ecol 158:103786. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2020.103786
Iqbal J, Mitchell DC, Barker DW, Miguez F, Sawyer JE, Pantoja J, Castellano MJ (2015) Does nitrogen fertilizer application rate to corn affect nitrous oxide emissions from the rotated soybean crop? J Environ Qual 44:711–719. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2014.09.0378
Jarecki MK, Parkin TB, Chan AS, Kaspar TC, Moorman TB, Singer JW, Kerr BJ, Hatfield JL, Jones R (2009) Cover crop effects on nitrous oxide emission from a manure-treated Mollisol. Agric, Ecosyst Environ 134:29–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2009.05.008
Kanter DR, Searchinger TD (2018) A technology-forcing approach to reduce nitrogen pollution. Nat Sustain 1:544–552. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-018-0143-8
Kelliher FM, Clough TJ, Clark H, Rys G, Sedcole JR (2008) The temperature dependence of dicyandiamide (DCD) degradation in soils: a data synthesis. Soil Biol Biochem 40:1878–1882. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2008.03.013
Kim N, Zabaloy MC, Guan K, Villamil MB (2020) Do cover crops benefit soil microbiome? A meta-analysis of current research. Soil Biol Biochem 142:107701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2019.107701
Larsen KS, Jonasson S, Michelsen A (2002) Repeated freeze-thaw cycles and their effects on biological processes in two arctic ecosystem types. Appl Soil Ecol 21:187–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0929-1393(02)00093-8
Lemke RL, Izaurralde RC, Nyborg M, Solberg ED (1999) Tillage and N source influence soil-emitted nitrous oxide in the Alberta Parkland region. Can J Soil Sci 79:15–24. https://doi.org/10.4141/S98-013
Li K, Gong Y, Song W, Lv J, Chang Y, Hu Y, Tian C, Christie P, Liu X (2012) No significant nitrous oxide emissions during spring thaw under grazing and nitrogen addition in an alpine grassland. Glob Chang Biol 18:2546–2554. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2012.02704.x
Lin S, Hernandez-Ramirez G (2020) Nitrous oxide emissions from manured soils as a function of various nitrification inhibitor rates and soil moisture contents. Sci Tot Environ 738:139669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139669
Lin S, Hernandez-Ramirez G, Kryzanowski L, Wallace T, Grant R, Degenhardt R, Berger N, Lohstraeter G, Powers L (2017) Timing of manure injection and nitrification inhibitors impacts on nitrous oxide emissions and nitrogen transformations in a barley crop. Soil Sci Soc Am J 81:1595–1605. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2017.03.0093
Linn DM, Doran JW (1984) Effect of water-filled pore space on carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide production in tilled and nontilled soils. Soil Sci Soc Am J 48:1267–1272. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1984.03615995004800060013x
Ludwig B, Teepe R, Lopes de Gerenyu V, Flessa H (2006) CO2 and N2O emissions from gleyic soils in the Russian tundra and a German forest during freeze-thaw periods-a microcosm study. Soil Biol Biochem 38:3516–3519. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2006.06.006
Ludwig B, Wolf I, Teepe R (2004). Contribution of nitrification and denitrification to the emission of N2O in a freeze-thaw event in an agricultural soil. J Plant Nutr Soil Sci 167: 678–684. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.200421462
Maljanen M, Kohonen AR, Virkajärvi P, Martikainen PJ (2007) Fluxes and production of N2O, CO2 and CH4 in boreal agricultural soil during winter as affected by snow cover. Tellus Ser B Chem Phys Meteorol 59:853–859. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0889.2007.00304.x
McGeough KL, Watson CJ, Müller C, Laughlin RJ, Chadwick DR (2016) Evidence that the efficacy of the nitrification inhibitor dicyandiamide (DCD) is affected by soil properties in UK soils. Soil Biol Biochem 94:222–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2015.11.017
Mitchell DC, Castellano MJ, Sawyer JE, Pantoja J (2013) Cover crop effects on nitrous oxide emissions: role of mineralizable carbon. Soil Sci Soc Am J 77:1765–1773. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2013.02.0074
Mutegi JK, Munkholm LJ, Petersen BM, Hansen EM, Petersen SO (2010) Nitrous oxide emissions and controls as influenced by tillage and crop residue management strategy. Soil Biol Biochem 42:1701–1711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2010.06.004
Nannipieri P, Ascher-Jenull J, Ceccherini MT, Pietramellara G, Renella G, Schloter M (2020) Beyond microbial diversity for predicting soil functions: a mini review. Pedosphere 30:5–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1002-0160(19)60824-6
Nyborg M, Laidlaw JW, Solberg ED, Malhi SS (1997) Denitrification and nitrous oxide emissions from a black chernozemic soil during spring thaw in Alberta. Can J Soil Sci 77:153–160. https://doi.org/10.4141/S96-105
Parkin TB, Hatfield JL (2010) Influence of nitrapyrin on N2O losses from soil receiving fall-applied anhydrous ammonia. Agric, Ecosyst Environ 136:81–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2009.11.014
Parkin TB, Kaspar TC, Jaynes DB, Moorman TB (2016) Rye cover crop effects on direct and indirect nitrous oxide emissions. Soil Sci Soc Am J 80:1551–1559. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2016.04.0120
Pelster DE, Chantigny MH, Rochette P, Angers DA, Laganière J, Zebarth B, Goyer C (2013) Crop residue incorporation alters soil nitrous oxide emissions during freeze-thaw cycles. Can J Soil Sci 93:415–425. https://doi.org/10.4141/CJSS2012-043
Petersen SO, Mutegi JK, Hansen EM, Munkholm LJ (2011) Tillage effects on N2O emissions as influenced by a winter cover crop. Soil Biol Biochem 43:1509–1517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2011.03.028
Pfab H, Palmer I, Buegger F, Fiedler S, Müller T, Ruser R (2012) Influence of a nitrification inhibitor and of placed N-fertilization on N2O fluxes from a vegetable cropped loamy soil. Agric Ecosyst Environ 150:91–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2012.01.001
Preza-Fontes G, Tomlinson PJ, Roozeboom KL, Warren J, Ruiz Diaz DA (2020) Nitrogen fertilization offsets the N2O mitigating effects of cover-crops and double-crop soybean in a wheat–sorghum system. Agron J 112:772–785. https://doi.org/10.1002/agj2.20095
Priemé A, Christensen S (2001) Natural perturbations, drying-wetting and freezing-thawing cycles, and the emission of nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide and methane from farmed organic soils. Soil Biol Biochem 33:2083–2091. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-0717(01)00140-7
Qiao C, Liu L, Hu S, Compton JE, Greaver TL, Li Q (2015) How inhibiting nitrification affects nitrogen cycle and reduces environmental impacts of anthropogenic nitrogen input. Glob Chang Biol 21:1249–1257. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12802
Risk N, Wagner-Riddle C, Furon A, Warland J, Blodau C (2014) Comparison of simultaneous soil profile N2O concentration and surface N2O flux measurements overwinter and at spring thaw in an agricultural soil. Soil Sci Soc Am J 78:180–193. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2013.06.0221
Schimel JP, Bennett J (2004) Nitrogen mineralization: challenges of a changing paradigm. Ecol 85:591–602
Sehy U, Dyckmans J, Ruser R, Munch JC (2004) Adding dissolved organic carbon to simulate freeze-thaw related N 2O emissions from soil. J Plant Nutr Soil Sci 167:471–478. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.200421393
Shackelford GE, Kelsey R, Dicks LV (2019) Effects of cover crops on multiple ecosystem services: ten meta-analyses of data from arable farmland in California and the Mediterranean. Land Use Policy 88:104204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.104204
Shakoor A, Shahbaz M, Farooq TH, Sahar NE, Shahzad SM, Altaf MM, Ashraf M (2021) A global meta-analysis of greenhouse gases emission and crop yield under no-tillage as compared to conventional tillage. Sci Tot Environ 750:142299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142299
Sharma S, Szele Z, Schilling R, Munch JC, Schloter M (2006) Influence of freeze-thaw stress on the structure and function of microbial communities and denitrifying populations in soil. Appl Environ Microbiol 72:2148–2154. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.72.3.2148
Signor D, Cerri CEP (2013) Nitrous oxide emissions in agricultural soils: a review. Pesqui Agropecu Trop 43:322–338. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1983-40632013000300014
Six J, Ogle SM, Breidt FJ, Conant RT, Mosiers AR, Paustian K (2004) The potential to mitigate global warming with no-tillage management is only realized when practised in the long term. Glob Chang Biol 10:155–160. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1529-8817.2003.00730.x
Smith J, Wagner-Riddle C, Dunfield K (2010) Season and management related changes in the diversity of nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria over winter and spring. Appl Soil Ecol 44:138–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2009.11.004
Smukler SM, O’Geen AT, Jackson LE (2012) Assessment of best management practices for nutrient cycling: a case study on an organic farm in a Mediterranean-type climate. J Soil Wat Conserv 67:16–31. https://doi.org/10.2489/jswc.67.1.16
Teepe R, Brumme R, Beese F (2001) Nitrous oxide emissions from soil during freezing and thawing periods. Soil Biol Biochem 33:1269–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-0717(01)00084-0
Thapa R, Chatterjee A, Awale R, McGranahan DA, Daigh A (2016) Effect of enhanced efficiency fertilizers on nitrous oxide emissions and crop yields: a meta-analysis. Soil Sci Soc Am J 80:1121–1134. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2016.06.0179
Thomas BW, Hao X, Larney FJ, Goyer C, Chantigny MH, Charles A (2017) Non-legume cover crops can increase non-growing season nitrous oxide emissions. Soil Sci Soc Ame J 81:189–199. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2016.08.0269
Ussiri DAN, Lal R, Jarecki MK (2009) Nitrous oxide and methane emissions from long-term tillage under a continuous corn cropping system in Ohio. Soil till Res 104:247–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2009.03.001
Vallejo A, Diez JA, López-Valdivia LM, Gascó A, Jiménez C (2001) Nitrous oxide emission and denitrification nitrogen losses from soils treated with isobutylenediurea and urea plus dicyandiamide. Biol Fertil Soils 34:248–257. https://doi.org/10.1007/s003740100409
van Groenigen JW, Zwart KB, Harris D, van Kessel C (2005) Vertical gradients of Δ15N and Δ18O in soil atmospheric N2O - temporal dynamics in a sandy soil. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 19:1289–1295. https://doi.org/10.1002/rcm.1929
van Kessel C, Venterea R, Six J, Adviento-Borbe MA, Linquist B, van Groenigen KJ (2013) Climate, duration, and N placement determine N2O emissions in reduced tillage systems: a meta-analysis. Glob Chang Biol 19:33–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2012.02779.x
VanderZaag AC, Jayasundara S, Wagner-Riddle C (2011) Strategies to mitigate nitrous oxide emissions from land applied manure. Anim Feed Sci Technol 166–167:464–479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2011.04.034
Wagner-Riddle C, Congreves KA, Abalos D, Berg AA, Brown SE, Ambadan JT, Gao X, Tenuta M (2017) Globally important nitrous oxide emissions from croplands induced by freeze-thaw cycles. Nat Geosci 10:279–283. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2907
Wagner-Riddle C, Furon A, Mclaughlin NL, Lee I, Barbeau J, Jayasundara S, Parkin G, Bertoldi P, Warland J (2007) Intensive measurement of nitrous oxide emissions from a corn-soybean-wheat rotation under two contrasting management systems over 5 years. Glob Chang Biol 13:1722–1736. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2007.01388.x
Wagner-Riddle C, Hu QC, van Bochove E, Jayasundara S (2008) Linking nitrous oxide flux during spring thaw to nitrate denitrification in the soil profile. Soil Sci Soc Am J 72:908–916. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2007.0353
Wertz S, Goyer C, Zebarth BJ, Tatti E, Burton DL, Chantigny MH, Filion M (2016) The amplitude of soil freeze-thaw cycles influences temporal dynamics of N2O emissions and denitrifier transcriptional activity and community composition. Biol Fertil Soils 52:1149–1162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-016-1146-0
Yang M, Fang Y, Sun D, Shi Y (2016) Efficiency of two nitrification inhibitors (dicyandiamide and 3, 4-dimethypyrazole phosphate) on soil nitrogen transformations and plant productivity: a meta-analysis. Sci Rep 6:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep22075
Yin M, Gao X, Tenuta M, Gui D, Zeng F (2019) Presence of spring-thaw N2O emissions are not linked to functional gene abundance in a drip-fertigated cropped soil in arid Northwestern China. Sci Tot Environ 695:133670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.133670
Zhang B, Penton CR, Yu Z, Xue C, Chen Q, Chen Z, Yan C, Zhang Q, Zhao M, Quensen JF, Tiedje JM (2021) A new primer set for clade I nosZ that recovers genes from a broader range of taxa. Biol Fertil Soils 57:523–531. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-021-01544-6
Zhang M, Wang W, Tang L, Heenan M, Xu Z (2018) Effects of nitrification inhibitor and herbicides on nitrification, nitrite and nitrate consumptions and nitrous oxide emission in an Australian sugarcane soil. Biol Fertil Soils 54:697–706
Zhe C, Shi-qi Y, Ai-ping Z, Xin J, Wei-min S, Zhao-rong MI, Qing Z (2018) Nitrous oxide emissions following seasonal freeze-thaw events from arable soils in Northeast China. J Integr Agric 17:231–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-3119(17)61738-6
Zhu G, Ju X, Zhang J, Müller C, Rees RM, Thorman RE, Sylvester-Bradley R (2019) Effects of the nitrification inhibitor DMPP (3,4-dimethylpyrazole phosphate) on gross N transformation rates and N2O emissions. Biol Fertil Soils 55:603–615. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-019-01375-6
Acknowledgements
We express our gratitude to the authors of the studies from which data used in this review were extracted. We thank Aidan De Sena and Georges T. Dodds for reviewing the manuscript. We also thank Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC) for funding the project.
Funding
The research project to produce these results was the Agricultural Greenhouse Gases Program (AGGP). This project’s fund was disseminated by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC) – Project Number: AGGP-020.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Kosoluchukwu C. Ekwunife curated data, performed the analysis, and wrote the paper. Chandra A. Madramootoo outlined scope of the study and reviewed and edited all drafts. Naeem A. Abbasi curated data and provided technical comments. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ekwunife, K.C., Madramootoo, C.A. & Abbasi, N.A. Assessing the impacts of tillage, cover crops, nitrification, and urease inhibitors on nitrous oxide emissions over winter and early spring. Biol Fertil Soils 58, 195–206 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-021-01605-w
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-021-01605-w