Journal Description
Batteries
Batteries
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on battery technology and materials published monthly online by MDPI. International Society for Porous Media (InterPore) is affiliated with Batteries and their members receive discounts on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Inspec, Ei Compendex, CAPlus / SciFinder, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Electrochemistry) / CiteScore - Q2 (Electrochemistry)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 17.7 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 3.4 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2023).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
- Sections: published in 5 topical sections.
Impact Factor:
4.0 (2022);
5-Year Impact Factor:
5.1 (2022)
Latest Articles
Welding Challenges and Quality Assurance in Electric Vehicle Battery Pack Manufacturing
Batteries 2024, 10(5), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10050146 - 24 Apr 2024
Abstract
Electric vehicles’ batteries, referred to as Battery Packs (BPs), are composed of interconnected battery cells and modules. The utilisation of different materials, configurations, and welding processes forms a plethora of different applications. This level of diversity along with the low maturity of welding
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Electric vehicles’ batteries, referred to as Battery Packs (BPs), are composed of interconnected battery cells and modules. The utilisation of different materials, configurations, and welding processes forms a plethora of different applications. This level of diversity along with the low maturity of welding designs and the lack of standardisation result in great variations in the mechanical and electrical quality of the joints. Moreover, the high-volume production requirements, meaning the high number of joints per module/BP, increase the absolute number of defects. The first part of this study focuses on associating the challenges of welding application in battery assembly with the key performance indicators of the joints. The second part reviews the existing methods for quality assurance which concerns the joining of battery cells and busbars. Additionally, the second part of this paper identifies the general trends and the research gaps for the most widely adopted welding methods in this domain, while it renders the future directions.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Processing, Manufacturing and Recycling)
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Open AccessArticle
Continuous Anode Slurry Production in Twin-Screw Extruders: Effects of the Process Setup on the Dispersion
by
Juan Fernando Meza Gonzalez, Hermann Nirschl and Frank Rhein
Batteries 2024, 10(5), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10050145 - 24 Apr 2024
Abstract
Screw design in the extrusion process has an important effect on the distribution of material through the extruder, resulting in partially filled sections in the processing zone. Accordingly, the local accumulation of material in the extruder leads to variations in material strain conditions
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Screw design in the extrusion process has an important effect on the distribution of material through the extruder, resulting in partially filled sections in the processing zone. Accordingly, the local accumulation of material in the extruder leads to variations in material strain conditions and also influences the local residence time of the material in a given screw section. This work evaluates particle dispersion in anode slurry considering three different screw arrangements. The particle size distribution is considered as a quality parameter representing the microstructure of the battery slurry components and their distribution. Numerical simulation of the material flow behavior through a laboratory extruder was performed to investigate the filling ratios and resulting shear rates for different screw designs and process conditions. The importance of process parameters and a suitable screw configuration to achieve specific particle sizes in battery slurry is discussed.
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(This article belongs to the Section Battery Processing, Manufacturing and Recycling)
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Open AccessReview
Biochar-Derived Anode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries: A Review
by
Ntalane Sello Seroka, Hongze Luo and Lindiwe Khotseng
Batteries 2024, 10(5), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10050144 - 24 Apr 2024
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Highly portable nanoelectronics and large-scale electronics rely on lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) as the most reliable energy storage technology. This method is thought to be both environmentally friendly and cost-effective. We provide a study of a low-cost, abundant, and renewable supply of carbon-based biomass
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Highly portable nanoelectronics and large-scale electronics rely on lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) as the most reliable energy storage technology. This method is thought to be both environmentally friendly and cost-effective. We provide a study of a low-cost, abundant, and renewable supply of carbon-based biomass with potential uses in LIBs. Renewable feedstocks have received significant attention in recent decades as promising tools for efficient and alternative anode materials for LIBs. Researchers can synthesise carbon-rich biochar through the pyrolytic process of biomass. Depending on the synthetic process, precise surface chemistry, and textural qualities such as specific surface area and porosity, this material can be customised to favour application-specific properties with a preferred application. In this research, we look at the performance of biochar in LIBs, its properties, and the biomass supply, and we discuss the prospects for these biomass-derived materials in energy storage devices.
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Open AccessArticle
A Novel Differentiated Control Strategy for an Energy Storage System That Minimizes Battery Aging Cost Based on Multiple Health Features
by
Wei Xiao, Jun Jia, Weidong Zhong, Wenxue Liu, Zhuoyan Wu, Cheng Jiang and Binke Li
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040143 - 22 Apr 2024
Abstract
In large-capacity energy storage systems, instructions are decomposed typically using an equalized power distribution strategy, where clusters/modules operate at the same power and durations. When dispatching shifts from stable single conditions to intricate coupled conditions, this distribution strategy inevitably results in increased inconsistency
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In large-capacity energy storage systems, instructions are decomposed typically using an equalized power distribution strategy, where clusters/modules operate at the same power and durations. When dispatching shifts from stable single conditions to intricate coupled conditions, this distribution strategy inevitably results in increased inconsistency and hastened system aging. This paper presents a novel differentiated power distribution strategy comprising three control variables: the rotation status, and the operating boundaries for both depth of discharge (DOD) and C-rates (C) within a control period. The proposed strategy integrates an aging cost prediction model developed to express the mapping relationship between these control variables and aging costs. Additionally, it incorporates the multi-colony particle swarm optimization (Mc-PSO) algorithm into the optimization model to minimize aging costs. The aging cost prediction model consists of three functions: predicting health features (HFs) based on the cumulative charge/discharge throughput quantity and operating boundaries, characterizing HFs as comprehensive scores, and calculating aging costs using both comprehensive scores and residual equipment value. Further, we elaborated on the engineering application process for the proposed control strategy. In the simulation scenarios, this strategy prolonged the service life by 14.62%, reduced the overall aging cost by 6.61%, and improved module consistency by 21.98%, compared with the traditional equalized distribution strategy. In summary, the proposed strategy proves effective in elongating service life, reducing overall aging costs, and increasing the benefit of energy storage systems in particular application scenarios.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Control and Optimization of Battery Energy Storage Systems)
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Open AccessArticle
Mechanical Measurement Approach to Characterize Venting Behavior during Thermal Runaway of 18650 Format Lithium-Ion Batteries
by
Elisabeth Irene Gillich, Marco Steinhardt, Yaroslava Fedoryshyna and Andreas Jossen
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040142 - 22 Apr 2024
Abstract
The propagation of thermal runaway in a battery system is safety-critical in almost every application, such as electric vehicles or home storage. Abuse models can help to undestand propagation mechanisms and assist in designing safe battery systems, but need to be well-parametrized. Most
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The propagation of thermal runaway in a battery system is safety-critical in almost every application, such as electric vehicles or home storage. Abuse models can help to undestand propagation mechanisms and assist in designing safe battery systems, but need to be well-parametrized. Most of the heat during thermal runaway is released by venting that is why the characteristic of the vent flow plays an important part in the safety assessment. During venting, the cell generates a recoil force like a rocket, which depends on the flow speed and flow rate of the gas. This principle is used in this work to measure the velocity and mass flow rate of the vent gas. High-power and high-energy 18650 format lithium-ion batteries were overheated and the recoil and weight forces were measured to determine the venting parameter during thermal runaway. Our results show, that the linearized gas flow rate for the high-power and high-energy cell is and , respectively. The progress of the gas velocity differs between the two cell types and in case of the high-energy cell, it follows a single peak asymmetrical pattern with a peak of , while the high-power cell shows a bumpy pattern with a maximum gas velocity of . The developed test bench and gained results can contribute insights in the venting behavior, characterize venting, support safety assessments, simulations and pack design studies.
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(This article belongs to the Section Battery Performance, Ageing, Reliability and Safety)
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Open AccessReview
Energy Storage Systems: Technologies and High-Power Applications
by
Ahmed Aghmadi and Osama A. Mohammed
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040141 - 20 Apr 2024
Abstract
Energy storage systems are essential in modern energy infrastructure, addressing efficiency, power quality, and reliability challenges in DC/AC power systems. Recognized for their indispensable role in ensuring grid stability and seamless integration with renewable energy sources. These storage systems prove crucial for aircraft,
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Energy storage systems are essential in modern energy infrastructure, addressing efficiency, power quality, and reliability challenges in DC/AC power systems. Recognized for their indispensable role in ensuring grid stability and seamless integration with renewable energy sources. These storage systems prove crucial for aircraft, shipboard systems, and electric vehicles, addressing peak load demands economically while enhancing overall system reliability and efficiency. Recent advancements and research have focused on high-power storage technologies, including supercapacitors, superconducting magnetic energy storage, and flywheels, characterized by high-power density and rapid response, ideally suited for applications requiring rapid charging and discharging. Hybrid energy storage systems and multiple energy storage devices represent enhanced flexibility and resilience, making them increasingly attractive for diverse applications, including critical loads. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of recent technological advancements in high-power storage devices, including lithium-ion batteries, recognized for their high energy density. In addition, a summary of hybrid energy storage system applications in microgrids and scenarios involving critical and pulse loads is provided. The research further discusses power, energy, cost, life, and performance technologies.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Charging Safety and Intelligence of Lithium-Ion Batteries)
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Open AccessArticle
Stabilization of the Interface between a PEO-Based Lithium Solid Polymer Electrolyte and a 4-Volt Class Cathode, LiCoO2, by the Addition of LiPF6 as a Lithium Salt
by
Sou Taminato, Akino Tsuka, Kento Sobue, Daisuke Mori, Yasuo Takeda, Osamu Yamamoto and Nobuyuki Imanishi
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040140 - 19 Apr 2024
Abstract
Here, the time dependence of the interfacial resistance for Li/polyethylene oxide (PEO)-Li(CF3SO2)2N (LiTFSI)-LiPF6/LiCoO2 cells was measured to investigate the stabilization effect of LiPF6 on the interface between a solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) and
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Here, the time dependence of the interfacial resistance for Li/polyethylene oxide (PEO)-Li(CF3SO2)2N (LiTFSI)-LiPF6/LiCoO2 cells was measured to investigate the stabilization effect of LiPF6 on the interface between a solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) and a 4-volt class cathode, LiCoO2. Impedance measurements under the applied potentials between 4.1 V and 4.4 V vs. Li/Li+ indicated that the addition of LiPF6 to LiTFSI was effective in improving the stability at high potentials such as 4.4 V vs. Li/Li+. In contrast, the resistance of the non-doped PEO-LiTFSI/LiCoO2 interface increased with time under the lower potential of 4.1 V vs. Li/Li+. Fairly good cycle performance was obtained for the LiPF6-doped cell, even at a cut-off voltage of 4.5 V vs. Li/Li+.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solid Electrolytes for All-Solid-State Batteries: Recent Progress and Future Perspectives)
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A Novel Feature Engineering-Based SOH Estimation Method for Lithium-Ion Battery with Downgraded Laboratory Data
by
Jinyu Wang, Caiping Zhang, Xiangfeng Meng, Linjing Zhang, Xu Li and Weige Zhang
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040139 - 19 Apr 2024
Abstract
Accurate estimation of lithium-ion battery state of health (SOH) can effectively improve the operational safety of electric vehicles and optimize the battery operation strategy. However, previous SOH estimation algorithms developed based on high-precision laboratory data have ignored the discrepancies between field and laboratory
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Accurate estimation of lithium-ion battery state of health (SOH) can effectively improve the operational safety of electric vehicles and optimize the battery operation strategy. However, previous SOH estimation algorithms developed based on high-precision laboratory data have ignored the discrepancies between field and laboratory data, leading to difficulties in field application. Therefore, aiming to bridge the gap between the lab-developed models and the field operational data, this paper presents a feature engineering-based SOH estimation method with downgraded laboratory battery data, applicable to real vehicles under different operating conditions. Firstly, a data processing pipeline is proposed to downgrade laboratory data to operational fleet-level data. The six key features are extracted on the partial ranges to capture the battery’s aging state. Finally, three machine learning (ML) algorithms for easy online deployment are employed for SOH assessment. The results show that the hybrid feature set performs well and has high accuracy in SOH estimation for downgraded data, with a minimum root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.36%. Only three mechanism features derived from the incremental capacity curve can still provide a proper assessment, with a minimum RMSE of 0.44%. Voltage-based features can assist in evaluating battery state, improving accuracy by up to 20%.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)
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Integrating Life Cycle Principles in Home Energy Management Systems: Optimal Load PV–Battery–Electric Vehicle Scheduling
by
Zaid A. Al Muala, Mohammad A. Bany Issa and Pastora M. Bello Bugallo
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040138 - 19 Apr 2024
Abstract
Energy management in the residential sector contributes to energy system dispatching and security with the optimal use of renewable energy systems (RES) and energy storage systems (ESSs) and by utilizing the main grid based on its state. This work focuses on optimal energy
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Energy management in the residential sector contributes to energy system dispatching and security with the optimal use of renewable energy systems (RES) and energy storage systems (ESSs) and by utilizing the main grid based on its state. This work focuses on optimal energy flow, ESS parameters, and energy consumption scheduling based on demand response (DR) programs. The primary goals of the work consist of minimizing electricity costs while simultaneously extending the lifetime of ESSs in conjunction with extracting maximum benefits throughout their operational lifespan and reducing CO2 emissions. Effective ESS and photovoltaic (PV) energy usage prices are modeled and an efficient energy flow management algorithm is presented, which considers the life cycle of the ESSs including batteries, electrical vehicles (EVs) and the efficient use of the PV system while reducing the cost of energy consumption. In addition, an optimization technique is employed to obtain the optimal ESS parameters including the size and depth of discharge (DOD), considering the installation cost, levelized cost of storage (LCOS), winter and summer conditions, energy consumption profile, and energy prices. Finally, an optimization technique is applied to obtain the optimal energy consumption scheduling. The proposed system provides all of the possibilities of exchanging energy between EV, battery, PV system, grid, and home. The optimization problem is solved using the particle swarm optimization algorithm (PSO) in MATLAB with an interval time of one minute. The results show the effectiveness of the proposed system, presenting an actual cost reduction of 28.9% and 17.7% in summer and winter, respectively, compared to a base scenario. Similarly, the energy losses were reduced by 26.7% in winter and 22.3% in summer, and the EV battery lifetime was extended from 9.2 to 19.1 years in the winter scenario and from 10.4 to 17.7 years in the summer scenario. The integrated system provided a financial contribution during the operational lifetime of EUR 11,600 and 7900 in winter and summer scenarios, respectively. The CO2 was reduced by 59.7% and 46.2% in summer and winter scenarios, respectively.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards a Smarter Battery Management System)
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Open AccessArticle
Aging in First and Second Life of G/LFP 18650 Cells: Diagnosis and Evolution of the State of Health of the Cell and the Negative Electrode under Cycling
by
William Wheeler, Pascal Venet, Yann Bultel, Ali Sari and Elie Riviere
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040137 - 18 Apr 2024
Abstract
Second-life applications for lithium-ion batteries offer the industry opportunities to defer recycling costs, enhance economic value, and reduce environmental impacts. An accurate prognosis of the remaining useful life (RUL) is essential for ensuring effective second-life operation. Diagnosis is a necessary step for the
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Second-life applications for lithium-ion batteries offer the industry opportunities to defer recycling costs, enhance economic value, and reduce environmental impacts. An accurate prognosis of the remaining useful life (RUL) is essential for ensuring effective second-life operation. Diagnosis is a necessary step for the establishment of a reliable prognosis, based on the aging modes involved in a cell. This paper introduces a method for characterizing specific aging phenomenon in Graphite/Lithium Iron Phosphate (G/LFP) cells. This method aims to identify aging related to the loss of active material at the negative electrode (LAMNE). The identification and tracking of the state of health (SoH) are based on Incremental Capacity Analysis (ICA) and Differential Voltage Analysis (DVA) peak-tracking techniques. The remaining capacity of the electrode is thus evaluated based on these diagnostic results, using a model derived from half-cell electrode characterization. The method is used on a G/LFP cell in the format 18650, with a nominal capacity of 1.1 Ah, aged from its pristine state to 40% of state of health.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second-Life Batteries)
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Open AccessArticle
Li-Ion Battery Thermal Characterization for Thermal Management Design
by
Aron Saxon, Chuanbo Yang, Shriram Santhanagopalan, Matthew Keyser and Andrew Colclasure
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040136 - 18 Apr 2024
Abstract
Battery design efforts often prioritize enhancing the energy density of the active materials and their utilization. However, optimizing thermal management systems at both the cell and pack levels is also key to achieving mission-relevant battery design. Battery thermal management systems, responsible for managing
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Battery design efforts often prioritize enhancing the energy density of the active materials and their utilization. However, optimizing thermal management systems at both the cell and pack levels is also key to achieving mission-relevant battery design. Battery thermal management systems, responsible for managing the thermal profile of battery cells, are crucial for balancing the trade-offs between battery performance and lifetime. Designing such systems requires accounting for the multitude of heat sources within battery cells and packs. This paper provides a summary of heat generation characterizations observed in several commercial Li-ion battery cells using isothermal battery calorimetry. The primary focus is on assessing the impact of temperatures, C-rates, and formation cycles. Moreover, a module-level characterization demonstrated the significant additional heat generated by module interconnects. Characterizing heat signatures at each level helps inform manufacturing at the design, production, and characterization phases that might otherwise go unaccounted for at the full pack level. Further testing of a 5 kWh battery pack revealed that a considerable temperature non-uniformity may arise due to inefficient cooling arrangements. To mitigate this type of challenge, a combined thermal characterization and multi-domain modeling approach is proposed, offering a solution without the need for constructing a costly module prototype.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management in Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)
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Open AccessReview
Behavior of NO3−-Based Electrolyte Additive in Lithium Metal Batteries
by
Jeongmin Kim, Taeho Yoon and Oh B. Chae
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040135 - 17 Apr 2024
Abstract
While lithium metal is highly desired as a next-generation battery material due to its theoretically highest capacity and lowest electrode potential, its practical application has been impeded by stability issues such as dendrite formation and short cycle life. Ongoing research aims to enhance
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While lithium metal is highly desired as a next-generation battery material due to its theoretically highest capacity and lowest electrode potential, its practical application has been impeded by stability issues such as dendrite formation and short cycle life. Ongoing research aims to enhance the stability of lithium metal batteries for commercialization. Among the studies, research on N-based electrolyte additives, which can stabilize the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer and provide stability to the lithium metal surface, holds great promise. The NO3− anion in the N-based electrolyte additive causes the SEI layer on the lithium metal surface to contain compounds such as Li3N and Li2O, which not only facilitates the conduction of Li+ ions in the SEI layer but also increases its mechanical strength. However, due to challenges with the solubility of N-based electrolyte additives in carbonate-based electrolytes, extensive research has been conducted on electrolytes based on ethers. Nonetheless, the low oxidative stability of ether-based electrolytes hinders their practical application. Hence, a strategy is needed to incorporate N-based electrolyte additives into carbonate-based electrolytes. In this review, we address the challenges of lithium metal batteries and propose practical approaches for the application and development of N-based electrolyte additives.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)
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Open AccessArticle
Pure and (Sn or Mg) Doped GeFe2O4 as Anodes for Sodium-Ion Batteries
by
Marco Ambrosetti, Irene Quinzeni, Alessandro Girella, Vittorio Berbenni, Benedetta Albini, Pietro Galinetto, Michela Sturini and Marcella Bini
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040134 - 17 Apr 2024
Abstract
GeFe2O4 (GFO) is a germanium mineral whose spinel crystal structure determines its interesting functional properties. Recently, it was proposed for application as an anode for Sodium and Lithium-Ion Batteries (SIBs and LIBs) thanks to its combined conversion and alloying electrochemical
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GeFe2O4 (GFO) is a germanium mineral whose spinel crystal structure determines its interesting functional properties. Recently, it was proposed for application as an anode for Sodium and Lithium-Ion Batteries (SIBs and LIBs) thanks to its combined conversion and alloying electrochemical mechanism. However, its entire potential is limited by the poor electronic conductivity and volumetric expansion during cycling. In the present paper, pure and Sn or Mg doped GFO samples obtained from mechano-chemical solid-state synthesis and properly carbon coated were structurally and electrochemically characterized and proposed, for the first time, as anodes for SIBs. The spinel cubic structure of pure GFO is maintained in doped samples. The expected redox processes, involving Fe and Ge ions, are evidenced in the electrochemical tests. The Sn doping demonstrated a beneficial effect on the long-term cycling (providing 150 mAh/g at 0.2 C after 120 cycles) and on the capacity values (346 mAh/g at 0.2 C with respect to 300 mAh/g of the pure one), while the Mg substitution was less effective.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Electrode Materials for High-Performance Sodium-Ion Batteries)
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Open AccessArticle
Early Investigations on Electrolyte Mixing Issues in Large Flow Battery Tanks
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Andrea Trovò, Pablo A. Prieto-Díaz, Nicolò Zatta, Francesco Picano and Massimo Guarnieri
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040133 - 17 Apr 2024
Abstract
Most investigations on flow batteries (FBs) make the assumption of perfectly mixed electrolytes inside the tanks without estimating their likelihood, while specific analyses are missing in the literature. This paper presents a pioneering investigation of the electrolyte flow dynamics inside FB tanks. This
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Most investigations on flow batteries (FBs) make the assumption of perfectly mixed electrolytes inside the tanks without estimating their likelihood, while specific analyses are missing in the literature. This paper presents a pioneering investigation of the electrolyte flow dynamics inside FB tanks. This study considers the Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) measured at the stack of a 9 kW/27 kWh Vanadium FB with 500 L tanks. Order-of-magnitude estimates of the measured dynamics suggest that differences in densities and viscosities of the active species drive gradients of concentrations with different patterns in the positive and negative tanks and in charge and discharge, affected by current and flow rate, which result in significant deviation from homogeneity, affecting the State of Charge (SoC) of the electrolytes flowed into the stack and thus the FB performance. In particular, stratifications of the inlet electrolytes may appear which are responsible for delays in reaching the outlets, with initial plateau and following step (s) in the SoC at the stack. These events can have a major impact in the performance of industrial FBs with large tanks and suggest that specific tank designs may improve the overall dynamics, calling for further analysis.
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(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)
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Open AccessArticle
Influence of Solid Fraction on Particle Size during Wet-Chemical Synthesis of β-Li3PS4 in Tetrahydrofuran
by
Aurelia Gries, Frederieke Langer, Julian Schwenzel and Matthias Busse
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040132 - 16 Apr 2024
Abstract
For all-solid-state batteries, the particle size distribution of the solid electrolyte is a critical factor. Small particles are preferred to obtain a high active mass loading of cathode active material and a small porosity in composite cathodes. In this work, the influence of
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For all-solid-state batteries, the particle size distribution of the solid electrolyte is a critical factor. Small particles are preferred to obtain a high active mass loading of cathode active material and a small porosity in composite cathodes. In this work, the influence of the solid fraction in the wet-chemical synthesis of β-Li3PS4 in tetrahydrofuran (THF) is investigated. The solid fraction is varied between 50 and 200 mg/mL, and the obtained samples are evaluated using X-ray diffraction, SEM and electrochemical impedance measurements. The sizes of the resulting particles show a significant dependency on the solid fraction, while a good ionic conductivity is maintained. For the highest concentration, the particle sizes do not exceed 10 µm, but for the lowest concentration, particles up to ~73 µm can be found. The ionic conductivities at room temperature are determined to be 0.63 ± 0.01 × 10−4 S/cm and 0.78 ± 0.01 × 10−4 S/cm for the highest and lowest concentrations, respectively. These findings lead to an improvement towards the production of tailored sulfide solid electrolytes.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solid Electrolytes for All-Solid-State Batteries: Recent Progress and Future Perspectives)
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Open AccessArticle
Controlling Algorithm of Reconfigurable Battery for State of Charge Balancing Using Amortized Q-Learning
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Dominic Karnehm, Wolfgang Bliemetsrieder, Sebastian Pohlmann and Antje Neve
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040131 - 15 Apr 2024
Abstract
In the context of the electrification of the mobility sector, smart algorithms have to be developed to control battery packs. Smart and reconfigurable batteries are a promising alternative to conventional battery packs and offer new possibilities for operation and condition monitoring. This work
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In the context of the electrification of the mobility sector, smart algorithms have to be developed to control battery packs. Smart and reconfigurable batteries are a promising alternative to conventional battery packs and offer new possibilities for operation and condition monitoring. This work proposes a reinforcement learning (RL) algorithm to balance the State of Charge (SoC) of reconfigurable batteries based on the topologies half-bridge and battery modular multilevel management (BM3). As an RL algorithm, Amortized Q-learning (AQL) is implemented, which enables the control of enormous numbers of possible configurations of the reconfigurable battery as well as the combination of classical controlling approaches and machine learning methods. This enhances the safety mechanisms during control. As a neural network of the AQL, a Feedforward Neuronal Network (FNN) is implemented consisting of three hidden layers. The experimental evaluation using a 12-cell hybrid cascaded multilevel converter illustrates the applicability of the method to balance the SoC and maintain the balanced state during discharge. The evaluation shows a 20.3% slower balancing process compared to a conventional approach. Nevertheless, AQL shows great potential for multiobjective optimizations and can be applied as an RL algorithm for control in power electronics.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Battery Systems: Monitoring, Management, and Control)
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The Future of Energy Storage in Vietnam: A Fuzzy Multi-Criteria Decision-Making Approach to Metal-Ion Battery Assessments
by
Chia-Nan Wang, Nhat-Luong Nhieu and Yen-Hui Wang
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040130 - 14 Apr 2024
Abstract
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, despite their prevalence, face issues of resource scarcity and environmental concerns, prompting the search for alternative technologies. This study addresses the need to assess and identify viable metal-ion battery alternatives to Li-ion batteries, focusing on the rapidly industrializing context of
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Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, despite their prevalence, face issues of resource scarcity and environmental concerns, prompting the search for alternative technologies. This study addresses the need to assess and identify viable metal-ion battery alternatives to Li-ion batteries, focusing on the rapidly industrializing context of Vietnam. It acknowledges the criticality of developing a sustainable, cost-effective, and resource-efficient energy storage solution that aligns with the country’s growth trajectory. The primary objective is to evaluate the suitability of emerging metal-ion batteries—specifically sodium-ion (SIB), sodium-ion saltwater (SIB-S), magnesium-ion (MIB), and zinc-ion (ZIB)—for Vietnam’s energy storage needs, guiding future investment and policy decisions. A Fuzzy Multiple-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) approach is employed, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative criteria. This study utilizes the Fuzzy Best-Worst Method (BWM) to determine the relative importance of various performance indicators and then applies the Bonferroni Fuzzy Combined Compromise Solution (Bonferroni FCoCoSo) method to rank the battery alternatives. The SIBs emerged as the most promising alternative, scoring the highest in the overall evaluation. The MIBs and SIB-saltwater batteries displayed competitive potential, while the ZIBs ranked the lowest among the considered options. This research provides a strategic framework for energy policy formulation and investment prioritization. It contributes to the field by applying a fuzzy-based MCDM approach in a novel context and offers a structured comparative analysis of metal-ion batteries, enhancing the body of knowledge on sustainable energy storage technologies.
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(This article belongs to the Section Battery Processing, Manufacturing and Recycling)
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A Lithium Battery Health Evaluation Method Based on Considering Disturbance Belief Rule Base
by
Xin Zhang, Aosen Gong, Wei He, You Cao and Huafeng He
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040129 - 13 Apr 2024
Abstract
Lithium-ion batteries are widely used in modern society as important energy storage devices due to their high energy density, rechargeable performance, and light weight. However, the capacity and performance of lithium-ion batteries gradually degrade with the number of charge or discharge cycles and
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Lithium-ion batteries are widely used in modern society as important energy storage devices due to their high energy density, rechargeable performance, and light weight. However, the capacity and performance of lithium-ion batteries gradually degrade with the number of charge or discharge cycles and environmental conditions, which can affect the reliability and lifetime of the batteries, so it is necessary to accurately evaluate their health. The belief rule base (BRB) model is an evaluation model constructed based on rules that can handle uncertainties in the operation of lithium-ion batteries. However, lithium-ion batteries may be affected by disturbances from internal or external sources during operation, which may affect the evaluation results. To prevent this problem, this paper proposes a disturbance-considering BRB modeling approach that considers the possible effects of disturbances on the battery in the operating environment and quantifies the disturbance-considering capability of the assessment model in combination with expert knowledge. Second, robustness and interpretability constraints are added in this paper, and an improved optimization algorithm is constructed that maintains or possibly improves the resistance of the model to disturbance. Finally, using the lithium-ion batteries provided by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Prediction Centre of Excellence and the University of Maryland as a case study, this paper verifies that the proposed modeling approach is capable of constructing robust models and demonstrates the effectiveness of the improved optimization algorithm.
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(This article belongs to the Section Battery Performance, Ageing, Reliability and Safety)
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Open AccessArticle
Thermal Analysis of a Fast Charger for Public Service Electric Vehicles Based on Supercapacitors
by
Joaquín F. Pedrayes, María F. Quintana, Gonzalo A. Orcajo, Enrique E. Valdés Zaldivar, Manuel G. Melero and Manés F. Cabanas
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040128 - 10 Apr 2024
Abstract
The aging of supercapacitors (SCs) depends on several factors, with temperature being one of the most important. When this is high, degradation of the electrolyte occurs. The impurities generated in its decomposition reduce the accessibility of the ions to the porous structure on
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The aging of supercapacitors (SCs) depends on several factors, with temperature being one of the most important. When this is high, degradation of the electrolyte occurs. The impurities generated in its decomposition reduce the accessibility of the ions to the porous structure on the surface of the electrode, which reduces its capacity and increases its internal resistance. In some applications, such as electric vehicles whose storage system consists of SCs, fast chargers, which supply very high power, are used. This can lead to an increase in temperature and accelerated aging of the cells. Therefore, it is important to know how the temperature of the SCs evolves in these cases and what parameters it depends on, both electrical and thermal. In this contribution, mathematical formulae have been developed to determine the evolution of the temperature in time and its maximum value during the transient state. The formulae for obtaining the mean and maximum temperature, once the thermal steady state (TSS) has been reached, are also shown, considering that the charger cells are recharged from the grid at a constant current. Based on this formulation, the thermal analysis of a specific case is determined.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Supercapacitors: Advancements & Challenges)
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Experimental and Model Analysis of the Thermal and Electrical Phenomenon of Arc Faults on the Electrode Pole of Lithium-Ion Batteries
by
Chuanyou Dong, Bin Gao, Yalun Li and Xiaogang Wu
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040127 - 09 Apr 2024
Abstract
Aiming at the electrical safety problem of a high-voltage lithium-ion battery system caused by an arc, and based on the establishment of a battery arc fault experimental platform, the evolution law of safety caused by an arc in the negative terminal of a
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Aiming at the electrical safety problem of a high-voltage lithium-ion battery system caused by an arc, and based on the establishment of a battery arc fault experimental platform, the evolution law of safety caused by an arc in the negative terminal of a battery system under different working conditions is discussed. On this basis, a battery arc evolution model based on magnetohydrodynamics is established to analyze the arc’s electro-thermal coupling characteristics to further obtain the distribution of the arc’s multi-physical field. The results show that the arc generated by the high-voltage grade battery pack will break down the cell’s shell and form a hole, resulting in electrolyte leakage. When the loop current is 10 A, the evolution law of arc voltage and current is basically the same under different supply voltages, charges, and discharges. The accuracy of the battery arc simulation model is verified by comparing the simulation with the experimental results. The research in this paper provides a theoretical basis for the electrical safety design of lithium-ion batteries caused by the arc, fills the gaps in the field of battery system arc simulation, and is of great significance for improving the safety performance of arc protection.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Battery Management and Integration Technology in Renewable Energy Power Supply Systems)
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