Journal Description
Batteries
Batteries
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on battery technology and materials published monthly online by MDPI. International Society for Porous Media (InterPore) is affiliated with Batteries and their members receive discounts on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Inspec, Ei Compendex, CAPlus / SciFinder, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Electrochemistry) / CiteScore - Q2 (Electrochemistry)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 17.7 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 3.4 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2023).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
- Sections: published in 5 topical sections.
Impact Factor:
4.0 (2022);
5-Year Impact Factor:
5.1 (2022)
Latest Articles
Stabilization of the Interface between a PEO-Based Lithium Solid Polymer Electrolyte and a 4-Volt Class Cathode, LiCoO2, by the Addition of LiPF6 as a Lithium Salt
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040140 - 19 Apr 2024
Abstract
Here, the time dependence of the interfacial resistance for Li/polyethylene oxide (PEO)-Li(CF3SO2)2N (LiTFSI)-LiPF6/LiCoO2 cells was measured to investigate the stabilization effect of LiPF6 on the interface between a solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) and
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Here, the time dependence of the interfacial resistance for Li/polyethylene oxide (PEO)-Li(CF3SO2)2N (LiTFSI)-LiPF6/LiCoO2 cells was measured to investigate the stabilization effect of LiPF6 on the interface between a solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) and a 4-volt class cathode, LiCoO2. Impedance measurements under the applied potentials between 4.1 V and 4.4 V vs. Li/Li+ indicated that the addition of LiPF6 to LiTFSI was effective in improving the stability at high potentials such as 4.4 V vs. Li/Li+. In contrast, the resistance of the non-doped PEO-LiTFSI/LiCoO2 interface increased with time under the lower potential of 4.1 V vs. Li/Li+. Fairly good cycle performance was obtained for the LiPF6-doped cell, even at a cut-off voltage of 4.5 V vs. Li/Li+.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solid Electrolytes for All-Solid-State Batteries: Recent Progress and Future Perspectives)
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A Novel Feature Engineering-Based SOH Estimation Method for Lithium-Ion Battery with Downgraded Laboratory Data
by
Jinyu Wang, Caiping Zhang, Xiangfeng Meng, Linjing Zhang, Xu Li and Weige Zhang
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040139 - 19 Apr 2024
Abstract
Accurate estimation of lithium-ion battery state of health (SOH) can effectively improve the operational safety of electric vehicles and optimize the battery operation strategy. However, previous SOH estimation algorithms developed based on high-precision laboratory data have ignored the discrepancies between field and laboratory
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Accurate estimation of lithium-ion battery state of health (SOH) can effectively improve the operational safety of electric vehicles and optimize the battery operation strategy. However, previous SOH estimation algorithms developed based on high-precision laboratory data have ignored the discrepancies between field and laboratory data, leading to difficulties in field application. Therefore, aiming to bridge the gap between the lab-developed models and the field operational data, this paper presents a feature engineering-based SOH estimation method with downgraded laboratory battery data, applicable to real vehicles under different operating conditions. Firstly, a data processing pipeline is proposed to downgrade laboratory data to operational fleet-level data. The six key features are extracted on the partial ranges to capture the battery’s aging state. Finally, three machine learning (ML) algorithms for easy online deployment are employed for SOH assessment. The results show that the hybrid feature set performs well and has high accuracy in SOH estimation for downgraded data, with a minimum root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.36%. Only three mechanism features derived from the incremental capacity curve can still provide a proper assessment, with a minimum RMSE of 0.44%. Voltage-based features can assist in evaluating battery state, improving accuracy by up to 20%.
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(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)
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Open AccessArticle
Integrating Life Cycle Principles in Home Energy Management Systems: Optimal Load PV–Battery–Electric Vehicle Scheduling
by
Zaid A. Al Muala, Mohammad A. Bany Issa and Pastora M. Bello Bugallo
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040138 - 19 Apr 2024
Abstract
Energy management in the residential sector contributes to energy system dispatching and security with the optimal use of renewable energy systems (RES) and energy storage systems (ESSs) and by utilizing the main grid based on its state. This work focuses on optimal energy
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Energy management in the residential sector contributes to energy system dispatching and security with the optimal use of renewable energy systems (RES) and energy storage systems (ESSs) and by utilizing the main grid based on its state. This work focuses on optimal energy flow, ESS parameters, and energy consumption scheduling based on demand response (DR) programs. The primary goals of the work consist of minimizing electricity costs while simultaneously extending the lifetime of ESSs in conjunction with extracting maximum benefits throughout their operational lifespan and reducing CO2 emissions. Effective ESS and photovoltaic (PV) energy usage prices are modeled and an efficient energy flow management algorithm is presented, which considers the life cycle of the ESSs including batteries, electrical vehicles (EVs) and the efficient use of the PV system while reducing the cost of energy consumption. In addition, an optimization technique is employed to obtain the optimal ESS parameters including the size and depth of discharge (DOD), considering the installation cost, levelized cost of storage (LCOS), winter and summer conditions, energy consumption profile, and energy prices. Finally, an optimization technique is applied to obtain the optimal energy consumption scheduling. The proposed system provides all of the possibilities of exchanging energy between EV, battery, PV system, grid, and home. The optimization problem is solved using the particle swarm optimization algorithm (PSO) in MATLAB with an interval time of one minute. The results show the effectiveness of the proposed system, presenting an actual cost reduction of 28.9% and 17.7% in summer and winter, respectively, compared to a base scenario. Similarly, the energy losses were reduced by 26.7% in winter and 22.3% in summer, and the EV battery lifetime was extended from 9.2 to 19.1 years in the winter scenario and from 10.4 to 17.7 years in the summer scenario. The integrated system provided a financial contribution during the operational lifetime of EUR 11,600 and 7900 in winter and summer scenarios, respectively. The CO2 was reduced by 59.7% and 46.2% in summer and winter scenarios, respectively.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards a Smarter Battery Management System)
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Open AccessArticle
Aging in First and Second Life of G/LFP 18650 Cells: Diagnosis and Evolution of the State of Health of the Cell and the Negative Electrode under Cycling
by
William Wheeler, Pascal Venet, Yann Bultel, Ali Sari and Elie Riviere
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040137 - 18 Apr 2024
Abstract
Second-life applications for lithium-ion batteries offer the industry opportunities to defer recycling costs, enhance economic value, and reduce environmental impacts. An accurate prognosis of the remaining useful life (RUL) is essential for ensuring effective second-life operation. Diagnosis is a necessary step for the
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Second-life applications for lithium-ion batteries offer the industry opportunities to defer recycling costs, enhance economic value, and reduce environmental impacts. An accurate prognosis of the remaining useful life (RUL) is essential for ensuring effective second-life operation. Diagnosis is a necessary step for the establishment of a reliable prognosis, based on the aging modes involved in a cell. This paper introduces a method for characterizing specific aging phenomenon in Graphite/Lithium Iron Phosphate (G/LFP) cells. This method aims to identify aging related to the loss of active material at the negative electrode (LAMNE). The identification and tracking of the state of health (SoH) are based on Incremental Capacity Analysis (ICA) and Differential Voltage Analysis (DVA) peak-tracking techniques. The remaining capacity of the electrode is thus evaluated based on these diagnostic results, using a model derived from half-cell electrode characterization. The method is used on a G/LFP cell in the format 18650, with a nominal capacity of 1.1 Ah, aged from its pristine state to 40% of state of health.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second-Life Batteries)
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Open AccessArticle
Li-Ion Battery Thermal Characterization for Thermal Management Design
by
Aron Saxon, Chuanbo Yang, Shriram Santhanagopalan, Matthew Keyser and Andrew Colclasure
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040136 - 18 Apr 2024
Abstract
Battery design efforts often prioritize enhancing the energy density of the active materials and their utilization. However, optimizing thermal management systems at both the cell and pack levels is also key to achieving mission-relevant battery design. Battery thermal management systems, responsible for managing
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Battery design efforts often prioritize enhancing the energy density of the active materials and their utilization. However, optimizing thermal management systems at both the cell and pack levels is also key to achieving mission-relevant battery design. Battery thermal management systems, responsible for managing the thermal profile of battery cells, are crucial for balancing the trade-offs between battery performance and lifetime. Designing such systems requires accounting for the multitude of heat sources within battery cells and packs. This paper provides a summary of heat generation characterizations observed in several commercial Li-ion battery cells using isothermal battery calorimetry. The primary focus is on assessing the impact of temperatures, C-rates, and formation cycles. Moreover, a module-level characterization demonstrated the significant additional heat generated by module interconnects. Characterizing heat signatures at each level helps inform manufacturing at the design, production, and characterization phases that might otherwise go unaccounted for at the full pack level. Further testing of a 5 kWh battery pack revealed that a considerable temperature non-uniformity may arise due to inefficient cooling arrangements. To mitigate this type of challenge, a combined thermal characterization and multi-domain modeling approach is proposed, offering a solution without the need for constructing a costly module prototype.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management in Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)
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Open AccessReview
Behavior of NO3−-Based Electrolytes Additive in Lithium Metal Batteries
by
Jeongmin Kim, Taeho Yoon and Oh B. Chae
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040135 - 17 Apr 2024
Abstract
While lithium metal is highly desired as a next-generation battery material due to its theoretically highest capacity and lowest electrode potential, its practical application has been impeded by stability issues such as dendrite formation and short cycle life. Ongoing research aims to enhance
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While lithium metal is highly desired as a next-generation battery material due to its theoretically highest capacity and lowest electrode potential, its practical application has been impeded by stability issues such as dendrite formation and short cycle life. Ongoing research aims to enhance the stability of lithium metal batteries for commercialization. Among the studies, research on N-based electrolyte additives, which can stabilize the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer and provide stability to the lithium metal surface, holds great promise. The NO3− anion in the N-based electrolyte additive causes the SEI layer on the lithium metal surface to contain compounds such as Li3N and Li2O, which not only facilitates the conduction of Li+ ions in the SEI layer but also increases its mechanical strength. However, due to challenges with the solubility of N-based electrolyte additives in carbonate-based electrolytes, extensive research has been conducted on electrolytes based on ethers. Nonetheless, the low oxidative stability of ether-based electrolytes hinders their practical application. Hence, a strategy is needed to incorporate N-based electrolyte additives into carbonate-based electrolytes. In this review, we address the challenges of lithium metal batteries and propose practical approaches for the application and development of N-based electrolyte additives.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)
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Open AccessArticle
Pure and (Sn or Mg) Doped GeFe2O4 as Anodes for Sodium-Ion Batteries
by
Marco Ambrosetti, Irene Quinzeni, Alessandro Girella, Vittorio Berbenni, Benedetta Albini, Pietro Galinetto, Michela Sturini and Marcella Bini
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040134 - 17 Apr 2024
Abstract
GeFe2O4 (GFO) is a germanium mineral whose spinel crystal structure determines its interesting functional properties. Recently, it was proposed for application as an anode for Sodium and Lithium-Ion Batteries (SIBs and LIBs) thanks to its combined conversion and alloying electrochemical
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GeFe2O4 (GFO) is a germanium mineral whose spinel crystal structure determines its interesting functional properties. Recently, it was proposed for application as an anode for Sodium and Lithium-Ion Batteries (SIBs and LIBs) thanks to its combined conversion and alloying electrochemical mechanism. However, its entire potential is limited by the poor electronic conductivity and volumetric expansion during cycling. In the present paper, pure and Sn or Mg doped GFO samples obtained from mechano-chemical solid-state synthesis and properly carbon coated were structurally and electrochemically characterized and proposed, for the first time, as anodes for SIBs. The spinel cubic structure of pure GFO is maintained in doped samples. The expected redox processes, involving Fe and Ge ions, are evidenced in the electrochemical tests. The Sn doping demonstrated a beneficial effect on the long-term cycling (providing 150 mAh/g at 0.2 C after 120 cycles) and on the capacity values (346 mAh/g at 0.2 C with respect to 300 mAh/g of the pure one), while the Mg substitution was less effective.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Electrode Materials for High-Performance Sodium-Ion Batteries)
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Early Investigations on Electrolyte Mixing Issues in Large Flow Battery Tanks
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Andrea Trovò, Pablo A. Prieto-Díaz, Nicolò Zatta, Francesco Picano and Massimo Guarnieri
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040133 - 17 Apr 2024
Abstract
Most investigations on flow batteries (FBs) make the assumption of perfectly mixed electrolytes inside the tanks without estimating their likelihood, while specific analyses are missing in the literature. This paper presents a pioneering investigation of the electrolyte flow dynamics inside FB tanks. This
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Most investigations on flow batteries (FBs) make the assumption of perfectly mixed electrolytes inside the tanks without estimating their likelihood, while specific analyses are missing in the literature. This paper presents a pioneering investigation of the electrolyte flow dynamics inside FB tanks. This study considers the Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) measured at the stack of a 9 kW/27 kWh Vanadium FB with 500 L tanks. Order-of-magnitude estimates of the measured dynamics suggest that differences in densities and viscosities of the active species drive gradients of concentrations with different patterns in the positive and negative tanks and in charge and discharge, affected by current and flow rate, which result in significant deviation from homogeneity, affecting the State of Charge (SoC) of the electrolytes flowed into the stack and thus the FB performance. In particular, stratifications of the inlet electrolytes may appear which are responsible for delays in reaching the outlets, with initial plateau and following step (s) in the SoC at the stack. These events can have a major impact in the performance of industrial FBs with large tanks and suggest that specific tank designs may improve the overall dynamics, calling for further analysis.
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(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)
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Open AccessArticle
Influence of Solid Fraction on Particle Size during Wet-Chemical Synthesis of β-Li3PS4 in Tetrahydrofuran
by
Aurelia Gries, Frederieke Langer, Julian Schwenzel and Matthias Busse
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040132 - 16 Apr 2024
Abstract
For all-solid-state batteries, the particle size distribution of the solid electrolyte is a critical factor. Small particles are preferred to obtain a high active mass loading of cathode active material and a small porosity in composite cathodes. In this work, the influence of
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For all-solid-state batteries, the particle size distribution of the solid electrolyte is a critical factor. Small particles are preferred to obtain a high active mass loading of cathode active material and a small porosity in composite cathodes. In this work, the influence of the solid fraction in the wet-chemical synthesis of β-Li3PS4 in tetrahydrofuran (THF) is investigated. The solid fraction is varied between 50 and 200 mg/mL, and the obtained samples are evaluated using X-ray diffraction, SEM and electrochemical impedance measurements. The sizes of the resulting particles show a significant dependency on the solid fraction, while a good ionic conductivity is maintained. For the highest concentration, the particle sizes do not exceed 10 µm, but for the lowest concentration, particles up to ~73 µm can be found. The ionic conductivities at room temperature are determined to be 0.63 ± 0.01 × 10−4 S/cm and 0.78 ± 0.01 × 10−4 S/cm for the highest and lowest concentrations, respectively. These findings lead to an improvement towards the production of tailored sulfide solid electrolytes.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solid Electrolytes for All-Solid-State Batteries: Recent Progress and Future Perspectives)
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Controlling Algorithm of Reconfigurable Battery for State of Charge Balancing Using Amortized Q-Learning
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Dominic Karnehm, Wolfgang Bliemetsrieder, Sebastian Pohlmann and Antje Neve
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040131 - 15 Apr 2024
Abstract
In the context of the electrification of the mobility sector, smart algorithms have to be developed to control battery packs. Smart and reconfigurable batteries are a promising alternative to conventional battery packs and offer new possibilities for operation and condition monitoring. This work
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In the context of the electrification of the mobility sector, smart algorithms have to be developed to control battery packs. Smart and reconfigurable batteries are a promising alternative to conventional battery packs and offer new possibilities for operation and condition monitoring. This work proposes a reinforcement learning (RL) algorithm to balance the State of Charge (SoC) of reconfigurable batteries based on the topologies half-bridge and battery modular multilevel management (BM3). As an RL algorithm, Amortized Q-learning (AQL) is implemented, which enables the control of enormous numbers of possible configurations of the reconfigurable battery as well as the combination of classical controlling approaches and machine learning methods. This enhances the safety mechanisms during control. As a neural network of the AQL, a Feedforward Neuronal Network (FNN) is implemented consisting of three hidden layers. The experimental evaluation using a 12-cell hybrid cascaded multilevel converter illustrates the applicability of the method to balance the SoC and maintain the balanced state during discharge. The evaluation shows a 20.3% slower balancing process compared to a conventional approach. Nevertheless, AQL shows great potential for multiobjective optimizations and can be applied as an RL algorithm for control in power electronics.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Battery Systems: Monitoring, Management, and Control)
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The Future of Energy Storage in Vietnam: A Fuzzy Multi-Criteria Decision-Making Approach to Metal-Ion Battery Assessments
by
Chia-Nan Wang, Nhat-Luong Nhieu and Yen-Hui Wang
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040130 - 14 Apr 2024
Abstract
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, despite their prevalence, face issues of resource scarcity and environmental concerns, prompting the search for alternative technologies. This study addresses the need to assess and identify viable metal-ion battery alternatives to Li-ion batteries, focusing on the rapidly industrializing context of
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Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, despite their prevalence, face issues of resource scarcity and environmental concerns, prompting the search for alternative technologies. This study addresses the need to assess and identify viable metal-ion battery alternatives to Li-ion batteries, focusing on the rapidly industrializing context of Vietnam. It acknowledges the criticality of developing a sustainable, cost-effective, and resource-efficient energy storage solution that aligns with the country’s growth trajectory. The primary objective is to evaluate the suitability of emerging metal-ion batteries—specifically sodium-ion (SIB), sodium-ion saltwater (SIB-S), magnesium-ion (MIB), and zinc-ion (ZIB)—for Vietnam’s energy storage needs, guiding future investment and policy decisions. A Fuzzy Multiple-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) approach is employed, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative criteria. This study utilizes the Fuzzy Best-Worst Method (BWM) to determine the relative importance of various performance indicators and then applies the Bonferroni Fuzzy Combined Compromise Solution (Bonferroni FCoCoSo) method to rank the battery alternatives. The SIBs emerged as the most promising alternative, scoring the highest in the overall evaluation. The MIBs and SIB-saltwater batteries displayed competitive potential, while the ZIBs ranked the lowest among the considered options. This research provides a strategic framework for energy policy formulation and investment prioritization. It contributes to the field by applying a fuzzy-based MCDM approach in a novel context and offers a structured comparative analysis of metal-ion batteries, enhancing the body of knowledge on sustainable energy storage technologies.
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(This article belongs to the Section Battery Processing, Manufacturing and Recycling)
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A Lithium Battery Health Evaluation Method Based on Considering Disturbance Belief Rule Base
by
Xin Zhang, Aosen Gong, Wei He, You Cao and Huafeng He
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040129 - 13 Apr 2024
Abstract
Lithium-ion batteries are widely used in modern society as important energy storage devices due to their high energy density, rechargeable performance, and light weight. However, the capacity and performance of lithium-ion batteries gradually degrade with the number of charge or discharge cycles and
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Lithium-ion batteries are widely used in modern society as important energy storage devices due to their high energy density, rechargeable performance, and light weight. However, the capacity and performance of lithium-ion batteries gradually degrade with the number of charge or discharge cycles and environmental conditions, which can affect the reliability and lifetime of the batteries, so it is necessary to accurately evaluate their health. The belief rule base (BRB) model is an evaluation model constructed based on rules that can handle uncertainties in the operation of lithium-ion batteries. However, lithium-ion batteries may be affected by disturbances from internal or external sources during operation, which may affect the evaluation results. To prevent this problem, this paper proposes a disturbance-considering BRB modeling approach that considers the possible effects of disturbances on the battery in the operating environment and quantifies the disturbance-considering capability of the assessment model in combination with expert knowledge. Second, robustness and interpretability constraints are added in this paper, and an improved optimization algorithm is constructed that maintains or possibly improves the resistance of the model to disturbance. Finally, using the lithium-ion batteries provided by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Prediction Centre of Excellence and the University of Maryland as a case study, this paper verifies that the proposed modeling approach is capable of constructing robust models and demonstrates the effectiveness of the improved optimization algorithm.
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(This article belongs to the Section Battery Performance, Ageing, Reliability and Safety)
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Thermal Analysis of a Fast Charger for Public Service Electric Vehicles Based on Supercapacitors
by
Joaquín F. Pedrayes, María F. Quintana, Gonzalo A. Orcajo, Enrique E. Valdés Zaldivar, Manuel G. Melero and Manés F. Cabanas
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040128 - 10 Apr 2024
Abstract
The aging of supercapacitors (SCs) depends on several factors, with temperature being one of the most important. When this is high, degradation of the electrolyte occurs. The impurities generated in its decomposition reduce the accessibility of the ions to the porous structure on
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The aging of supercapacitors (SCs) depends on several factors, with temperature being one of the most important. When this is high, degradation of the electrolyte occurs. The impurities generated in its decomposition reduce the accessibility of the ions to the porous structure on the surface of the electrode, which reduces its capacity and increases its internal resistance. In some applications, such as electric vehicles whose storage system consists of SCs, fast chargers, which supply very high power, are used. This can lead to an increase in temperature and accelerated aging of the cells. Therefore, it is important to know how the temperature of the SCs evolves in these cases and what parameters it depends on, both electrical and thermal. In this contribution, mathematical formulae have been developed to determine the evolution of the temperature in time and its maximum value during the transient state. The formulae for obtaining the mean and maximum temperature, once the thermal steady state (TSS) has been reached, are also shown, considering that the charger cells are recharged from the grid at a constant current. Based on this formulation, the thermal analysis of a specific case is determined.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Supercapacitors: Advancements & Challenges)
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Experimental and Model Analysis of the Thermal and Electrical Phenomenon of Arc Faults on the Electrode Pole of Lithium-Ion Batteries
by
Chuanyou Dong, Bin Gao, Yalun Li and Xiaogang Wu
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040127 - 09 Apr 2024
Abstract
Aiming at the electrical safety problem of a high-voltage lithium-ion battery system caused by an arc, and based on the establishment of a battery arc fault experimental platform, the evolution law of safety caused by an arc in the negative terminal of a
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Aiming at the electrical safety problem of a high-voltage lithium-ion battery system caused by an arc, and based on the establishment of a battery arc fault experimental platform, the evolution law of safety caused by an arc in the negative terminal of a battery system under different working conditions is discussed. On this basis, a battery arc evolution model based on magnetohydrodynamics is established to analyze the arc’s electro-thermal coupling characteristics to further obtain the distribution of the arc’s multi-physical field. The results show that the arc generated by the high-voltage grade battery pack will break down the cell’s shell and form a hole, resulting in electrolyte leakage. When the loop current is 10 A, the evolution law of arc voltage and current is basically the same under different supply voltages, charges, and discharges. The accuracy of the battery arc simulation model is verified by comparing the simulation with the experimental results. The research in this paper provides a theoretical basis for the electrical safety design of lithium-ion batteries caused by the arc, fills the gaps in the field of battery system arc simulation, and is of great significance for improving the safety performance of arc protection.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Battery Management and Integration Technology in Renewable Energy Power Supply Systems)
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A Novel Solver for an Electrochemical–Thermal Ageing Model of a Lithium-Ion Battery
by
Toshan Wickramanayake, Mehrnaz Javadipour and Kamyar Mehran
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040126 - 09 Apr 2024
Abstract
To estimate the state of health, charge, power, and safety (SoX) of lithium-ion batteries (LiBs) in real time, battery management systems (BMSs) need accurate and efficient battery models. The full-order partial two-dimensional (P2D) model is a common physics-based cell-level LiB model that faces
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To estimate the state of health, charge, power, and safety (SoX) of lithium-ion batteries (LiBs) in real time, battery management systems (BMSs) need accurate and efficient battery models. The full-order partial two-dimensional (P2D) model is a common physics-based cell-level LiB model that faces challenges for real-time BMS implementation due to the complexity of its numerical solver. In this paper, we propose a method to discretise the P2D model equations using the Finite Volume and Verlet Integration Methods to significantly reduce the computational complexity of the solver. Our proposed iterative solver uses novel convergence criteria and physics-based initial guesses to provide high fidelity for discretised P2D equations. We also include both the kinetic-limited and diffusion-limited models for Solid Electrolyte Interface (SEI) growth into an iterative P2D solver. With these SEI models, we can estimate the capacity fade in real time once the model is tuned to the cell–voltage curve. The results are validated using three different operation scenarios, including the 1C discharge/charge cycle, multiple-C-rate discharges, and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory dynamic stress test. The proposed solver shows at least a 4.5 times improvement in performance with less than 1% error when compared to commercial solvers.
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(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)
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Open AccessArticle
Poly(vinyl benzoate)-b-poly(diallyldimethyl ammonium TFSI)-b-poly(vinyl benzoate) Triblock Copolymer Electrolytes for Sodium Batteries
by
Pierre L. Stigliano, Antonela Gallastegui, Carlos Villacis-Segovia, Marco Amores, Ajit Kumar, Luke A. O’Dell, Jian Fang, David Mecerreyes, Cristina Pozo-Gonzalo and Maria Forsyth
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040125 - 08 Apr 2024
Abstract
Block copolymers (BCPs) as solid electrolytes for batteries are usually designed to have an ion-solvating block for ion conduction and an ionophobic block for providing mechanical strength. Here, we show a novel solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) for sodium batteries based on a poly(vinyl
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Block copolymers (BCPs) as solid electrolytes for batteries are usually designed to have an ion-solvating block for ion conduction and an ionophobic block for providing mechanical strength. Here, we show a novel solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) for sodium batteries based on a poly(vinyl benzoate)-b-poly(diallyldimethyl ammonium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide) PVBx-b-PDADMATFSIy-b-PVBx ABA triblock copolymer. The SPE triblock copolymer comprises a polymerized ionic liquid (PIL) ion-solvating block combined with NaFSI salt as an internal block and an ionophilic PVB as an external block. Four distinct compositions with varying chain lengths of the blocks were synthesized by reversible addition−fragmentation chain-transfer (RAFT) polymerization. The neat copolymers were subsequently mixed with NaFSI in a 2:1 mol ratio of Na to ionic monomer units. Through comprehensive analysis using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), it was revealed that the ion coordination within the polymer–salt mixtures undergoes changes based on the composition of the starting neat polymer. Electrochemical evaluations identified the optimal composition for practical application as PVB11.5K-b-PDADMATFSI33K-b-PVB11.5K, showing an ionic conductivity at 70 °C of 4.2 × 10−5 S cm−1. This polymer electrolyte formulation was investigated for sodium in Na|Na symmetrical cells, showing an overpotential of 200 mV at 70 °C at 0.1 mA cm−2. When applied in a sodium–air battery, the polymer electrolyte membrane achieved a discharge capacity of 1.59 mAh cm−2 at 50 °C.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Polymer Electrolytes for Batteries)
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DFT Simulations Investigating the Trapping of Sulfides by 1T-LixMoS2 and 1T-LixMoS2/Graphene Hybrid Cathodes in Li-S Batteries
by
Shumaila Babar, Elaheh Hojaji, Qiong Cai and Constantina Lekakou
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040124 - 05 Apr 2024
Abstract
The aim of this study is to investigate new materials that can be employed as cathode hosts in Li-S batteries, which would be able to overcome the effect of the shuttling of soluble polysulfides and maximize the battery capacity and energy density. Density
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The aim of this study is to investigate new materials that can be employed as cathode hosts in Li-S batteries, which would be able to overcome the effect of the shuttling of soluble polysulfides and maximize the battery capacity and energy density. Density functional theory (DFT) simulations are used to determine the adsorption energy of lithium sulfides in two types of cathode hosts: lithiated 1T-MoS2 (1T-LixMoS2) and hybrid 1T-LixMoS2/graphene. Initial simulations of lithiated 1T-MoS2 structures led to the selection of an optimized 1T-Li0.75MoS2 structure, which was utilized for the formation of an optimized 1T-Li0.75MoS2 bilayer and a hybrid 1T-Li0.75MoS2/graphene bilayer structure. It was found that all sulfides exhibited super-high adsorption energies in the interlayer inside the 1T-Li0.75MoS2 bilayer and very good adsorption energy values in the interlayer inside the hybrid 1T-Li0.75MoS2/graphene bilayer. The placement of sulfides outside each type of bilayer, over the 1T-Li0.75MoS2 surface, yielded good adsorption energies in the range of −2 to −3.8 eV, which are higher than those over a 1T-MoS2 substrate.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Materials and Technologies for Post-Lithium-Ion Batteries—2nd Edition)
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Open AccessArticle
Aging Mechanism of Mn-Based Prussian Blue Cathode Material by Synchrotron 2D X-ray Fluorescence
by
Mariam Maisuradze, Min Li, Ilaria Carlomagno, Mattia Gaboardi, Giuliana Aquilanti, Jasper Rikkert Plaisier and Marco Giorgetti
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040123 - 05 Apr 2024
Abstract
The aging mechanism of 10% and 30% nickel-substituted manganese hexacyanoferrate cathode material in aqueous zinc-ion batteries has been explored through the advanced synchrotron-based two-dimensional X-ray fluorescence technique. Thanks to the two-dimension modality, not only were the metal concentration dynamics throughout the entire electrodes
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The aging mechanism of 10% and 30% nickel-substituted manganese hexacyanoferrate cathode material in aqueous zinc-ion batteries has been explored through the advanced synchrotron-based two-dimensional X-ray fluorescence technique. Thanks to the two-dimension modality, not only were the metal concentration dynamics throughout the entire electrodes followed during the aging process, but their spatial distribution was also revealed, suggesting the route of the material transformation. The dissolution of Mn and Ni, as well as the penetration of Zn inside the framework were detected, while the Mn aggregations were found outside the hexacyanoferrate framework. Additionally, the possibility of conducting X-ray absorption spectroscopy measurements on the regions of interest made it possible to explore the chemical state of each metal, and furthermore, synchrotron-based powder X-ray diffraction demonstrated the gradual structural modification in 30% Ni-containing sample series in terms of the different phase formation.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Application, and Characterization of New Electrode Materials for Advanced Batteries)
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Open AccessArticle
MnO2/AgNPs Composite as Flexible Electrode Material for Solid-State Hybrid Supercapacitor
by
Borislava Mladenova, Mariela Dimitrova and Antonia Stoyanova
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040122 - 05 Apr 2024
Abstract
A MnO2/AgNP nanocomposite was synthesized using a sonochemical method and investigated as an electrode material in a solid-state hybrid supercapacitor. Aquivion’s sodium and lithium electrolyte membrane serves as an electrolyte and separator. For comparison, MnO2 was used as the active
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A MnO2/AgNP nanocomposite was synthesized using a sonochemical method and investigated as an electrode material in a solid-state hybrid supercapacitor. Aquivion’s sodium and lithium electrolyte membrane serves as an electrolyte and separator. For comparison, MnO2 was used as the active material. The developed supercapacitor containing a carbon xerogel as a negative electrode, the MnO2/AgNP composite as a positive electrode and a Na+-exchange membrane demonstrated the highest performance characteristics. These results indicate that the incorporation of silver nanoparticles into the MnO2 structure is a prospect for obtaining an active composite electrode material for solid-state supercapacitors.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Super-capacitors: Preparation and Application)
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Open AccessArticle
Na4Fe3(PO4)2(P2O7)@C/Ti3C2Tx Hybrid Cathode Materials with Enhanced Performances for Sodium-Ion Batteries
by
Ao Xiang, Deyou Shi, Peng Chen, Zhongjun Li, Quan Tu, Dahui Liu, Xiangguang Zhang, Jun Lu, Yan Jiang, Ze Yang and Pei Hu
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040121 - 03 Apr 2024
Abstract
Developing cost-effective cathode materials is conducive to accelerating the commercialization of sodium-ion batteries. Na4Fe3(PO4)2P2O7 (NFPP) has attracted extensive attention owning to its high theoretical capacity, stable structure, and low cost of raw
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Developing cost-effective cathode materials is conducive to accelerating the commercialization of sodium-ion batteries. Na4Fe3(PO4)2P2O7 (NFPP) has attracted extensive attention owning to its high theoretical capacity, stable structure, and low cost of raw materials. However, its inherent low conductivity hinders its further application. Herein, carbon-coated NFPP nanospheres are anchored to crumpled MXene nanosheets by an electrostatic self-assembly; this cross-linked structure induced by CTAB not only significantly expands the contact area between particles and improves the electronic conductivity, but also effectively reduces the aggregation of NFPP nanoparticles. The as-designed Na4Fe3(PO4)2(P2O7)@C/Ti3C2Tx (NFPP@MX) cathode exhibits a high discharge capacity (106.1 mAh g−1 g at 0.2 C), good rate capability (60.4 mAh g−1 at 10 C), and a long-life cyclic stability (85.2% capacity retention after 1000 cycles at 1 C). This study provides an effective strategy for the massive production of high-performance NFPP cathodes and broadens the application of MXene in the modification of other cathode materials.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue High Performance Sodium Rechargeable Batteries and Beyond)
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