ALBERT

Description / Table of Contents: The second edition of this internationally acclaimed text presents the latest developments in atmospheric science. It continues to be the premier text for both a rigorous and a complete treatment of the chemistry of the atmosphere, covering such pivotal topics as: chemistry of the stratosphere and troposphere; formation, growth, dynamics, and properties of aerosols; meteorology of air pollution; transport, diffusion, and removal of species in the atmosphere; formation and chemistry of clouds; interaction of atmospheric chemistry and climate; radiative and climatic effects of gases and particles; formulation of mathematical chemical/transport models of the atmosphere. All chapters develop results based on fundamental principles, enabling the reader to build a solid understanding of the science underlying atmospheric processes. Among the new material are three new chapters: Atmospheric radiation and photochemistry, gernal circulation of the atmosphere, and global cycles. In addition, the chapters Stratospheric chemistry, tropospheric chemistry, and organic atmospheric aerosols have been rewritten to reflect the latest findings. Readers familiar with the first edition will discover a text with new structures and new features that greatly aid learning. Many examples are set off in the text to help readers work through the application of concepts. Advanced material has been moved to appendices. Finally, many new problems, coded by degree of difficulty, have been added. A solutions manual is available. Throughly updated and restructured, the second edition of Atmospheric chemistry and physics is an ideal textbook for upper-level undergraduate and graduate students, as well as a reference for researchers in environmental engineering, meteorology, chemistry, and the atmospheric sciences.

Description / Table of Contents: CONTENTS: Preface. - 1 The Atmosphere. - 1.1 History and Evolution of the Earth's Atmosphere. - 1.2 Climate. - 1.3 The Layers of the Atmosphere. - 1.4 Variation of Pressure with Height in the Atmosphere. - 1.5 Large-Scale Motion of the Atmosphere. - 1.5.1 The General Circulation. - 1.5.2 Troposphere-Stratosphere Transport. - 1.6 Temperature and Water Vapor. - 1.7 Expressing the Amount of a Substance in the Atmosphere. - 1.8 Composition of the Atmosphere. - 1.9 Radiation. - 1.9.1 Solar and Terrestrial Radiation. - 1.9.2 Absorption of Radiation by Gases. - 1.10 Energy Balance for Earth and Atmosphere. - 1.10.1 Solar Variability. - 1.10.2 Earth's Energy Balance. - 1.11 Spatial and Temporal Scales of Atmospheric Processes. - Appendix 1 Derivation of the Geostrophic Wind Speed. - References. - Problems. - 2 Atmospheric Composition, Global Cycles, and Lifetimes. - 2.1 Atmospheric Residence Times. - 2.1.1 Residence Time. - 2.2 Sulfur-Containing Compounds. - 2.2.1 Dimethyl Sulfide (CH3SCH3). - 2.2.2 Carbonyl Sulfide (OCS). - 2.2.3 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2). - 2.2.4 The Atmospheric Sulfur Cycle. - 2.3 Nitrogen-Containing Compounds. - 2.3.1 Nitrous Oxide (N20). - 2.3.2 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx = NO + NO2). - 2.3.3 Reactive Odd Nitrogen (NOy). - 2.3.4 Ammonia (NH3). - 2.4 Carbon-Containing Compounds. - 2.4.1 Classification of Hydrocarbons. - 2.4.2 Methane. - 2.4.3 Volatile Organic Compounds. - 2.4.4 Biogenic Hydrocarbons. - 2.4.5 Carbon Monoxide. - 2.4.6 Carbon Dioxide. - 2.5 Halogen-Containing Compounds 2.6 Atmospheric Ozone. - 2.6.1 Stratospheric Ozone. - 2.6.2 Ozone Flux from the Stratosphere to the Troposphere. - 2.6.3 Tropospheric Ozone. - 2.7 Particulate Matter (Aerosols). - 2.7.1 Stratospheric Aerosol. - 2.7.2 Chemical Components of Tropospheric Aerosol. - 2.7.3 Cloud Condensation Nuclei (CCN). - 2.7.4 Sizes of Atmospheric Particles. - 2.7.5 Sources of Atmospheric Particulate Matter. - 2.7.6 Carbonaceous particles. - 2.8 Emmissions inventories. - 2.9 Biomass burning. - 2.10 Air pollution legislation. - 2.11 Hazardous air pollutants (Air Toxics). - Appendix 2 Compartmental Models of Global Biogeochemical Cycles. - 2.A.1 Relation Between Atmospheric Mass and Volume Mixing Ratio. - 2.A.2 Application of the Compartment Model to Methyl Chloroform (CH3CCI3). - References. - Problems. - 3 Atmospheric Photochemistry and Chemical Kinetics. - 3.1 Radiative Flux in the Atmosphere. - 3.1.1 Solar Radiation Received on Earth. - 3.1.2 Earth Geometry for Solar Radiation. - 3.2 Absorption Coefficient and Absorption Cross Section. - 3.3 Actinic Flux. - 3.4 Atmospheric Photochemistry. - 3.5 Chemical Kinetics. - 3.5.1 The Pseudo-Steady-State Approximation. - 3.5.2 Pressure Dependence of Reactions. - References. - Problems. - 4 Chemistry of the Stratosphere. - 4.1 Chapman Mechanism. - 4.2 HOx Cycles. - 4.3 NOx Cycles. - 4.3.1 N2O Stratospheric Source of NOx . - 4.3.2 NOx Cycles. - 4.4 CIOx Cycles. - 4.5 Reservoir Species and Coupling of the Cycles. - 4.6 Stratospheric Species Observations and Predictions. - 4.6.1 Upper Stratosphere. - 4.6.2 Lower Stratosphere. - 4.7 Ozone Hole. - 4.7.1 Polar Stratospheric Clouds. - 4.7.2 PSCs and the Ozone Hole. - 4.7.3 Antarctic Ozone Hole Measurements. - 4.7.4 Arctic Ozone Hole. - 4.7.5 Summary. - 4.8 Heterogeneous (Nonpolar) Stratospheric Chemistry. - 4.8.1 Heterogeneous Hydrolysis of N2O5. - 4.8.2 Effect of Volcanoes on Stratospheric Ozone. - 4.8.3 Summary of Midlatitude and Tropical Stratospheric Ozone Chemistry. - 4.9 Transport Between the Tropical and Midlatitude Stratosphere. - 4.10 Ozone-Depleting Potential of Halocarbons. - 4.11 Effect of Aircraft Emissions on Stratospheric Ozone. - 4.12 Carbonyl Sulfide (OCS) and the Stratospheric Aerosol Layer. - 4.12.1 Atmospheric Chemistry of OCS and OCS Lifetime. - 4.12.2 Stratospheric Aerosol Layer. - 4.13 Projections of Future Ozone Change. - Appendix 4 Sensitivity/Uncertainty Analysis of Atmospheric Chemical Mechanisms. - 4.A.1 Sensitivity Coefficients. - 4.A.2 The Direct Decoupled Method. - 4.A.3 Adjoint Methods. - 4.A.4 Green's Function Methods. - References. - Problems. - 5 Chemistry of the Troposphere. - 5.1Basic Photochemical Cycle of NO2, NO, and O3. - 5.2 Atmospheric Chemistry of Carbon Monoxide and NOx. - 5.3 Atmospheric Chemistry of Formaldehyde and NOx. - 5.4 Chemistry of the Background Troposphere. - 5.4.1 Ozone Photolysis. - 5.4.2 Methane Oxidation. - 5.4.3 Hydrogen Peroxide. - 5.5 The Hydroxyl Radical. - 5.6 The Nitrate Radical. - 5.7 The Ozone Budget of the Troposphere and the Role of NOx. - 5.7.1 Tropospheric Sinks of Ozone. - 5.7.2 Tropospheric Source of Ozone. - 5.7.3 Fate of NOx. - 5.7.4 Ozone Budget of the Troposphere. - 5.7.5 Climatology of Regional Tropospheric Ozone. - 5.8 Chemistry of Nonmethane Organic Compounds in the Troposphere. - 5.8.1 Alkanes. - 5.8.2 Alkenes. - 5.8.3 Aromatics. - 5.8.4 Aldehydes. - 5.8.5 Peroxyacyl Nitrates (PANs). - 5.8.6 Ketones. - 5.8.7[Alpha], [Beta]-Unsaturated Carbonyls. - 5.8.8 Ethers. - 5.8.9 Alcohols. - 5.8.10 Acids. - 5.9 Atmospheric Chemistry of Biogenic Hydrocarbons. - 5.9.1 Isoprene. - 5.9.2 Other Biogenic Hydrocarbons. - 5.10 Summary of Organic/NOx Chemistry. - 5.10.1 Generalized Organic/NOx Chemistry. - 5.10.2 Behavior of Generalized Mechanism. - 5.10.3 Effect of Temperature on Ozone Formation in Urban and Rural Environments. - 5.11 Relative Roles of VOC and NOx in Ozone Formation. - 5.11.1 Importance of the VOC/NOx Ratio. - 5.11.2 Ozone Isopleth Plot. - 5.11.3 Relation of [03] to [NOy]. - 5.12 Origin and Behavior of the Radical Pool in Photochemical Ozone Formation. - 5.13 Organic Reactivity with Respect to Ozone Formation. - 5.13.1 OH Reactivity. - 5.13.2 Incremental Reactivity. - 5.14 Atmospheric Chemistry of Reduced Nitrogen Compounds. - 5.14.1 Amines. - 5.14.2 Nitriles. - 5.14.3 Nitrites. - 5.15 Atmospheric Chemistry (Gas Phase) of Sulfur Compounds. - 5.15.1 Sulfur Oxides. - 5.15.2 Reduced Sulfur Compounds (Dimethyl Sulfide). - 5.16 Tropospheric Chemistry of Halogen Compounds. - 5.16.1 Chemical Cycles of Halogen Species. - 5.16.2 Tropospheric Chemistry of CFC Replacements: Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and Hydrochlorofiuorocarbons (HCFCs). - References. - Problems. - 6 Chemistry of the Atmospheric Aqueous Phase. - 6.1 Liquid Water in the Atmosphere. - 6.1.1 Cloud Types and Liquid Water Content. - 6.2 Absorption Equilibria and Henry's Law. - 6.2.1 Gas/Aqueous-Phase Distribution Factor. - 6.3 Aqueous-Phase Chemical Equilibria. - 6.3.1 Water. - 6.3.2 Carbon Dioxide/Water Equilibrium. - 6.3.3 Sulfur Dioxide. - 6.3.4 Ammonia/Water Equilibrium. - 6.3.5 Nitric Acid/Water Equilibrium. - 6.3.6 Equilibrium of Other Important Atmospheric Gases. - 6.4 Aqueous-Phase Reaction Rates. - 6.5 S(IV) to S(VI) Transformation and Sulfur Chemistry. - 6.5.1 Oxidation of S(IV) by Dissolved O3. - 6.5.2 Oxidation of S(IV) by Hydrogen Peroxide. - 6.5.3 Oxidation of S(IV) by Organic Peroxides. - 6.5.4 Uncatalyzed Oxidation of S(IV) by O2. - 6.5.5 Oxidation of S(IV) by O2 Catalyzed by Iron and Manganese. - 6.5.6 S(IV) Oxidation by the OH Radical. - 6.5.7 Oxidation of S(IV) by Oxides of Nitrogen. - 6.5.8 Reaction of Dissolved SO2 with HCHO. - 6.5.9 Comparison of Aqueous-Phase S(IV)Oxidation Paths. - 6.6 Aqueous-Phase Nitrite and Nitrate Chemistry. - 6.6.1 NOx Oxidation. - 6.6.2 Nitrogen Radicals. - 6.7 Aqueous-Phase Organic Chemistry. - 6.8 Oxygen and Hydrogen Chemistry. - 6.9 Dynamic Behavior of Solutions with Aqueous-Phase Chemical Reactions. - 6.9.1 Closed System. - 6.9.2 Calculation of Concentration Changes in a Droplet with Aqueous-Phase Reactions. - Appendix 6 Thermodynamic and Kinetic Data. - References. - Problems. - 7 Properties of the Atmospheric Aerosol. - 7.1 The Size Distribution Function. - 7.1.1 The Number Distribution nN(Dp). - 7.1.2 The Surface Area, Volume, and Mass Distributions. - 7.1.3 Distributions Based on In Dp and log Dp. - 7.1.4 Relating Size Distributions Based on Different Independent Variables. - 7.1.5 Properties of Size Distributions. - 7.1.6 The Log-Normal Distribution. - 7.1.7 Plotting the Log-Normal Distribution. - 7.1.8 Properties of the Log-Normal Distribution. - 7.1.9 Other Aerosol Distributions. - 7.2 Ambient Aerosol Size Distributions. - 7.2.1 Urban Aerosols. - 7.2.2 Marine Aerosols. - 7.2.3 Rural Continental Aerosols. - 7.2.4 Remote Continental Aerosols. - 7.2.5 Free Tropospheric Aerosols. - 7.2.6 Polar Aerosols. - 7.2.7 Desert Aerosols. - 7.3 Aerosol Chemical Composition. - 7.4 Vertical Variation. - References. - Problems. - 8 Dynamics of Single Aerosol Particles. - 8.1 Continuum and Noncontinuum Dynamics. - 8.1.1 The Mean Free Path. - 8.2 The Dragona Single Particle: Stokes' Law. - 8.2.1 Corrections to Stokes' Law. - 8.2.1 Corrections to Stokes' Law: The Drag Coefficient. - 8.2.2 Stokes' Law and Noncontinuum Effects: Slip Correction Factor. - 8.3 Gravitational Settling of an Aerosol Particle. - 8.3.1 Settling of Particles for Any Re. - 8.4 Motion of an Aerosol Particle in an External Force Field. - 8.4.1 Motion of a Charged Particle in an Electric Field. - 8.5 Brownian Motion of Aerosol Particles. - 8.5.1 Particle Diffusion. - 8.5.2 Aerosol Mobility and Drift Velocity. - 8.5.3 Mean Free Path of an Aerosol Particle. - 8.6 Phoretic Effects. - 8.6.1 Thermophoresis. - 8.6.2 Diffusiophoresis. - 8.6.3 Photophoresis. - 8.7 Aerosol and Fluid Motion. - 8.7.1 Motion of a Particle in an Idealized Flow (90°Corner). - 8.7.2 Stop Distance and Stokes Number. - 8.8 Diameters of Nonspherical Particles. - References. - Problems. - 9 Thermodynamics of Aerosols. - 9.1 Thermodynamic Principles. - 9.1.1 Internal Energy and Chemical Potential. - 9.1.2 The Gibbs Free Energy, G. - 9.1.3 Conditions for Chemical Equilibrium. - 9.1.4 Chemical Potentials of Ideal Gases and Ideal Gas Mixtures. - 9.1.5 Chemical Potential of Solutions. - 9.1.6 The Equilibrium Constant. - 9.2 Aerosol Liquid Water Content.- 9.2.1 Chemical Potential of Water in Atmospheric Particles. - 9.2.2 Temperature Dependence of the DRH. - 9.2.3 Deliquescence of Multicomponent Aerosols. - 9.2.4 Crystallization of Single and Multicomponent Salts. - 9.3 Equilibrium Vapor Pressure Over a Curved Surface: The Kelvin Effect. - 9.4 Thermodynamics of Atmospheric Aerosol Systems. - 9.4.1 The H2SO4-H2O System. - 9.4.2 The Sulfuric Acid-Ammonia-Water System. - 9.4.3The Ammonia-Nitric Acid-Water System. - 9.4.4 The Ammonia-Nitric Acid-Sulfuric Acid-Water System.- 9.4.5 Other Inorganic Aerosol Species. - References. - Problem. - 10 Nucleation. - 10.1 Classical Theory of Homogeneous Nucleation: Kinetic Approach. - 10.1.1 The Forward Rate Constant [Beta]t. - 10.1.2 The Reverse Rate Constant [Gamma]i. - 10.1.3 Derivation of the Nucleation Rate. - 10.2 Classical Homogeneous Nucleation Theory: Constrained Equilibrium Approach. - 10.2.1 Free Energy of i-mer Formation. - 10.2.2 Constrained Equilibrium Cluster Distribution. - 10.2.3 The Evaporation Coefficient [Gamma]t. - 10.2.4 Nucleation Rate. - 10.2.5 Recapitulation. - 10.3 Experimental Measurement of Nucleation Rates. - 10.3.1 Upward Thermal Diffusion Cloud Chamber. - 10.3.2 Fast Expansion Chamber. - 10.3.3 Turbulent Mixing Chambers. - 10.3.4 Experimental Evaluation of Classical Homogeneous Nucleation Theory. - 10.4 Modifications of the Classical Theory and More Rigorous Approaches. - 10.5 Binary Homogeneous Nucleation. - 10.6 Binary Nucleation in the H2SO4-H2O System. - 10.7 Nucleation in the Presence of a Preexisting Aerosol. - 10.7.1 Homogeneous-Homomolecular Nucleation. - 10.7.2 Effect of a Preexisting Aerosol on H2SO4-H2O Binary Nucleation. - 10.8 Heterogeneous Nucleation. - 10.8.1 Nucleation on an Insoluble Foreign Surface. - 10.8.2 Ion-Induced Nucleation. - 10.9 Nucleation from Chemical Reaction. - Appendix 10 The Law of Mass Action. - References. - Problems. - 11 Mass Transfer Aspects of Atmospheric Chemistry. - 11.1 Mass and Heat Transfer to Atmospheric Particles. - 11.1.1 The Continuum Regime. - 11.1.2 The Kinetic Regime. - 11.1.3 The Transition Regime. - 11.1.4 The Accommodation Coefficient. - 11.2 Mass Transport Limitations in Aqueous-Phase Chemistry. - 11.2.1 Characteristic Time for Gas-Phase Diffusion to a Particle. - 11.2.2 Characteristic Time to Achieve Equilibrium in the Gas-Particle Interface. - 11.2.3 Characteristic Time of Aqueous Dissociation Reactions. - 11.2.4 Characteristic Time of Aqueous-Phase Diffusion in a Droplet. - 11.2.5 Characteristic Time for Aqueous-Phase Chemical Reactions. - 11.3 Mass Transport and Aqueous-Phase Chemistry. - 11.3.1 Gas-Phase Diffusion and Aqueous-Phase Reactions. - 11.3.2 Aqueous-Phase Diffusion and Reaction. - 11.3.3 Interfacial Mass Transport and Aqueous-Phase Reactions. - 11.3.4 Application to the S(IV)-Ozone Reaction. - 11.3.5 Application to the S(IV)-Hydrogen Peroxide Reaction. - 11.3.6 Calculation of Aqueous-Phase Reaction Rates. - 11.3.7 An Aqueous-Phase Chemistry/Mass Transport Model. - 11.4 Mass Transfer to Falling Drops. - 11.5 Characteristic Time for Atmospheric Aerosol Equilibrium. - 11.5.1 Solid Aerosol Particles. - 11.5.2 Aqueous Aerosol Particles. - Appendix 11 Solution of the Transient Gas-Phase Diffusion Problem Equations (11.4)to (11.7). - References. - Problems. - 12 Dynamics of Aerosol Populations. - 12.1 Mathematical Representations of the Aerosol Size Distributions. - 12.1.1 Discrete Distribution. - 12.1.2 Continuous Distribution. - 12.2 Condensation. - 12.2.1 Solution of the Condensation Equation. - 12.3 Coagulation. - 12.3.1 Brownian Coagulation. - 12.3.2 Coagulation in Laminar Shear Flow. - 12.3.3 Coagulation in Turbulent Flow. - 12.3.4 Coagulation from Gravitational Settling. - 12.3.5 Brownian Coagulation and External Force Fields. - 12.3.6 The Coagulation Equation. - 12.3.7 Solution of the Coagulation Equation. - 12.4 The Discrete General Dynamic Equation. - 12.5 The Continuous General Dynamic Equation. - 12.6 Evolution of an Aerosol Size Distribution During Gas-to-Particle Conversion. - 12.6.1 Diffusion-Controlled Growth. - 12.6.2 Surface Reaction-Controlled Growth. - 12.6.3 Volume Reaction-Controlled Growth. - 12.6.4 Dimensionless Size Spectra Evolution.

Description / Table of Contents: Continuation of Table of Contents: Appendix 12 Solution of (12.92). - References. - Problems. - 13 Organic Atmospheric Aerosols. - 13.1 Organic Aerosol Components. - 13.2 Elemental Carbon. - 13.2.1 Formation of Soot and Elemental Carbon. - 13.2.2 Emission Sources of Elemental Carbon.- 13.2.3 Ambient Elemental Carbon Concentrations. - 13.2.4 Ambient Elemental Carbon Size Distribution. - 13.2.5 Degree of Mixing of EC in Ambient Aerosols. - 13.2.6 Heterogeneous Chemistry of Carbonaceous Particles. - 13.3 Organic Carbon. - 13.3.1 Ambient Aerosol Organic Carbon Concentrations. - 13.3.2 Primary Versus Secondary Organic Carbon. - 13.4 Primary Organic Carbon. - 13.4.1 Sources. - 13.4.2 Chemical Composition. - 13.4.3 Primary OC Size Distribution. - 13.5 Secondary Organic Carbon. - 13.5.1 Overview of Secondary Organic Aerosol Formation Pathways. - 13.5.2 Dissolution and Gas/Particle Partitioning of Organic Compounds. - 13.5.3 Adsorption and Gas/Particle Partitioning of Organic Compounds. - 13.5.4 Precursor Gases. - 13.5.5 Physical Properties. - 13.6 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs). - 13.6.1 Emission Sources. - 13.6.2 Size Distributions. - 13.6.3 Atmospheric Chemistry. - 13.6.4 Partitioning Between the Gas and Aerosol Phases. - 13.7 Biogenics. - Appendix 13 Measurement of Elemental and Organic Carbon. - References. - Problems. - 14 Meteorology of Air Pollution. - 14.1 Temperature in the Lower Atmosphere. - 14.1.1 Pressure and Temperature Relationships in the Lower Atmosphere. - 14.1.2 Temperature Changes of a Rising (or Falling) Parcel of Air. - 14.2 Atmospheric Stability. - Problems. - 15 Cloud Physics. - 15.1 Properties of Water and Water Solutions. - 15.1.1 Specific Heat of Water and Ice. - 15.1.2 Latent Heats of Evaporation and of Melting for Water. - 15.1.3 Water Surface Tension. - 15.2 Water Equilibrium in the Atmosphere. - 15.2.1 Equilibrium of a Flat Pure Water Surface with the Atmosphere. - 15.2.2 Equilibrium of a Pure Water Droplet. - 15.2.3 Equilibrium of a Flat Water Solution. - 15.2.4 Atmospheric Equilibrium of an Aqueous Solution Drop. - 15.2.5 Atmospheric Equilibrium of an Aqueous Solution Drop Containing an Insoluble Substance. - 15.3 Cloud and Fog Formation. - 15.3.1 Isobaric Cooling. - 15.3.2 Adiabatic Cooling. - 15.3.3 Cooling with Entrainment. - 15.3.4 A Simplified Mathematical Description of Cloud Formation. - 15.4 Growth Rate of Individual Cloud Droplets. - 15.5 Growth of a Droplet Population. - 15.6 Cloud Condensation Nuclei. - 15.7 Cloud Processing of Aerosols. - 15.7.1 Nucleation Scavenging of Aerosols by Clouds. - 15.7.2 Chemical Composition of Cloud Droplets. - 15.7.3 Nonraining Cloud Effects on Aerosol Concentrations. - 15.7.4 Interstitial Aerosol Scavenging by Cloud Droplets. - 15.7.5 Aerosol Nucleation Near Clouds. - 15.8 Other Forms of Water in the Atmosphere. - 15.8.1 Ice Clouds. - 15.8.2 Rain. - 15.9 Cloud Climatology. - References. - Problems. - 16 Micrometeorology. - 16.1 Basic Equations of Atmospheric Fluid Mechanics. - 16.2 Turbulence. - 16.3 Equations for the Mean Quantities. - 16.4 Mixing-Length Models for Turbulent Transport. - 16.5 Variation of Wind with Height in the Atmosphere. - 16.5.1 Mean Velocity in the Surface Layer in Adiabatic Conditions. - 16.5.2 Effects of Temperature on the Surface Layer. - 16.5.3 Wind Profiles in the Nonadiabatic Surface Layer. - 16.5.4 Determination of the Friction Velocity ux. - 16.5.5 Empirical Formula for the Mean Wind Speed. - 16.6 The Pasquill Stability Classes. - 16.7 The Convective Boundary Layer. - 16.8 Meteorological Measurements. - References. - Problems. - 17 Atmospheric Diffusion Theories. - 17.1 Eulerian Approach. - 17.2 Lagrangian Approach. - 17.3 Comparison of Eulerian and Lagrangian Approaches. - 17.4 Equations Governing the Mean Concentration of Species in Turbulence. - 17.4.1 Eulerian Approaches. - 17.4.2 Conditions for Validity of the Atmospheric Diffusion Equation. - 17.4.3 Lagrangian Approaches. - 17.5 Solution of the Atmospheric Diffusion Equation for an Instantaneous Source. - 17.6 Mean Concentration from Continuous Sources. - 17.6.1 Lagrangian Approach. - 17.6.2 Eulerian Approach. - 17.6.3 Summary of Continuous Point Source Solutions. - 17.7 Statistical Theory of Turbulent Diffusion. - 17.7.1 Qualitative Features of Atmospheric Diffusion. - 17.7.2 Motion of a Single Particle Relative to a Fixed Axis.- 17.8 Summary of Atmospheric Diffusion Theories. - Appendix 17 Further Solutions. - 17.A.1 Solution of (17.47) to (17.49). - 17.A.2 Solution of (17.68) and (17.69). - 17.A.3 Solution of (17.77) to (17.79). - References. - Problems. - 18 Analytical Solutions for Atmospheric Diffusion: The Gaussian Plume Equation and Others. - 18.1 Gaussian Concentration Distributions. - 18.2 Derivation of the Gaussian Plume Equation as a Solution of the Atmospheric Diffusion Equation. - 18.3 Summary of Gaussian Point Source Diffusion Formulas. - 18.4 Dispersion Parameters in Gaussian Models. - 18.4.1 Correlations for [Sigma]y and [Sigma]z Based on Similarity Theory. - 18.4.2 Correlations for [Sigma]y and [Sigma]z Based on Pasquill Stability Classes. - 18.5 Plume Rise. - 18.6 Analytical Properties of the Gaussian Plume Equation. - 18.7 Functional Forms of Mean Wind Speed and Eddy Diffusivities. - 18.7.1 Mean Wind Speed. - 18.7.2 Vertical Eddy Diffusion Coefficient Kzz.- 18.7.3 Horizontal Eddy Diffusion Coefficients Kxx and Kyy. - 18.8 Solutions of the Steady-State Atmospheric Diffusion Equation. - 18.8.1 Diffusion from a Point Source. - 18.8.2 Diffusion from a Line Source. - References. - Problems. - 19 Dry Deposition. - 19.1 Deposition Velocity. - 19.2 Resistance Model for Dry Deposition. - 19.2.1 Aerodynamic Resistance. - 19.2.2 Quasi-Laminar Resistance. - 19.2.3 Surface of Canopy Resistance. - 19.2.4 Relative Magnitudes of ra, rb,and rc. - 19.3 Dry Deposition of Particles. - 19.4 A Model for Dry Deposition Calculations. - 19.5 Measurement of Dry Deposition. - 19.5.1 Direct Methods. - 19.5.2 Indirect Methods. - 19.5.3 Comparison of Methods. - 19.6 Some Comments on Modeling and Measurement of Dry Deposition. - 19.7 Interaction Between Equilibration Processes and Dry Deposition. - 19.7.1 Solution of the Model Equations. - 19.7.2 The Deposition Ratio. - 19.7.3 Effects of Equilibration Processes on Dry and Wet Deposition. - References. - Problems. - 20 Wet Deposition. - 20.1 General Representation of Atmospheric Wet Removal Processes. - 20.1.1 Parameters Used in Wet Deposition Studies. - 20.2 Below-Cloud Scavenging of Gases. - 20.2.1 Below-Cloud Scavenging of an Irreversibly Soluble Gas. - 20.2.2 Below-Cloud Scavenging of a Reversibly Soluble Gas. - 20.3 Precipitation Scavenging of Particles. - 20.3.1 Raindrop-Aerosol Collision Efficiency. - 20.3.2 Scavenging Rates. - 20.4 In-Cloud Scavenging. - 20.5 Cloud Processes and Wet Deposition. - 20.6 Acid Deposition. - 20.6.1 Acid Rain Overview. - 20.6.2 Current Acid Rain Data and Trends. - 20.6.3 Effects of Acid Deposition. - 20.6.4 Cloudwater Deposition. - 20.6.5 Fogs and Wet Deposition. - 20.6.6 Source-Receptor Relationships. - 20.6.7 Linearity. - 20.7 Acid Deposition Process Synthesis. - 20.7.1 Chemical Species Involved in Acid Deposition. - 20.7.2 Dry Versus Wet Deposition. - 20.7.3 Chemical Pathways for Sulfate and Nitrate Production. - 20.7.4 Acid Rain Chemistry. - References. - Problems. - 21 Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate. - 21.1 Global Temperature Record and Solar Variability. - 21.1.1 The Global Temperature Record. - 21.1.2 Solar Variability. - 21.2 Possible Effects of Global Warming. - 21.3 Carbon Dioxide. - 21.4 Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate Change. - 21.4.1 Direct Radiative Impacts. - 21.4.2 Indirect Chemical Impacts. - 21.4.3 Atmospheric Lifetimes and Adjustment Times. - 21.5 Radiative Effects of Clouds. - 21.6 Radiative Forcing and Climate Sensitivity. - 21.7 Relative Radiative Forcing Indices. - References. - Problems. - 22 Radiative Effects of Atmospheric Aerosols: Visibility and Climate. - 22.1 Scattering and Absorption of Light by Small Particles. - 22.1.1 Rayleigh Scattering Regime. - 22.1.2 Geometric Scattering Regime. - 22.1.3 Scattering Phase Function. - 22.1.4 Extinction by an Ensemble of Particles. - 22.2 Visibility. - 22.3 Scattering, Absorption, and Extinction Coefficients from Mie Theory. - 22.4 Calculated Visibility Reduction Based on Atmospheric Data. - 22.5 Direct Effect of Aerosols on Climate. - 22.5.1 Optical Depth. - 22.5.2 Upscatter Fraction. - 22.5.3 Scattering Model of an Aerosol Layer. - 2.5.4 Cooling Versus Heating of an Aerosol Layer. - 22.5.5 Scattering Model of an Aerosol Layer for a Nonabsorbing Aerosol. - 22.5.6 Direct Aerosol Forcing of Climate by Sulfate Aerosols. - 22.5.7 Effect of Mineral Dust on Radiative Forcing of Climate. - 22.5.8 Effect of Carbonaceous Aerosols on Radiative Forcing of Climate. - 22.5.9 Internal and External Mixtures. - 22.6 Indirect Effect of Aerosols on Climate. - 22.6.1 Radiative Model for a Cloudy Atmosphere. - 22.6.2 Sensitivity of Cloud Albedo to Cloud Drop Number Concentration. - 22.6.3 Relation of Cloud Drop Number Concentration to Aerosol Concentrations. - 22.6.4 Estimates of Indirect Radiative Forcing of Aerosols. - 22.7 Summary: Estimates of Contributions to Radiative Forcing. - 22.8 Climate Response to Anthropogenic Aerosol Forcing. - Appendix 22 Calculation of Scattering and Extinction Coefficients by Mie Theory. - References. - Problems. - 23 Atmospheric Chemical Transport Models. - 23.1 Introduction. - 23.1.1 Model Types. - 23.1.2 Types of Atmospheric Chemical Transport Models. - 23.2 Box Models. - 23.2.1 The Eulerian Box Model. - 23.2.2 A Lagrangian Box Model. - 23.3 Three-Dimensional Atmospheric Chemical Transport Models. - 23.3.1Coordinate System - Uneven Terrain. - 23.3.2 Initial Conditions. - 23.3.3 Boundary Conditions. - 23.4 One-Dimensional Lagrangian Models. - 23.5 Other Forms of Chemical Transport Models. - 23.5.1 Atmospheric Diffusion Equation Expressed in Terms of Mixing Ratio. - 23.5.2 Pressure-Based Coordinate System. - 23.5.3 Spherical Coordinates. - 23.6 Numerical Solution of Chemical Transport Models. - 23.6.1 Coupling Problem -Operator Splitting. - 23.6.2 Chemical Kinetics. - 23.6.3 Diffusion. - 23.6.4 Advection. - 23.7 Applications of Atmospheric Chemical Transport Models. - 23.7.1 Los Angeles Basin Photochemical Smog. - 23.7.2 Acid Deposition in North America. - 23.7.3 Global Sulfur. - 23.8 Model Evaluation. - 8 References. - Problems. - 4 Statistical Models. - 24.1 Recept or Modeling Methods. - 24.1.1 Chemical Mass Balance (CMB). - 24.1.2 Factor Analysis. - 24.1.3 Empirical Orthogonal Function Receptor Models. - 24.2 Probability Distributions for Air Pollutant Concentrations. - 24.2.1 The Log-Normal Distribution. - 24.2.2 The Weibull Distribution. - 24.3 Estimation of Parameters in the Distributions. - 24.3.1 Method of Quantiles. - 24.3.2 Method of Moments. - 24.4 Order Statistics of Air Quality Data. - 24.4.1 Basic Notions and Terminology of Order Statistics. - 24.4.2 Extreme Values. - 24.5 Exceedances of Critical Levels. - 24.5.1 Distribution of Exceedances. - 24.5.2 Expected Return Period or Waiting Time. - 24.6 Alternative Forms of Air Quality Standards. - 24.6.1 Evaluation of Alternative Forms of the Ozone Air Quality Standard with 1971 Pasadena, California, Data. - 24.6.2 Selection of the Averaging Time. - 24.7 Relating Current and Future Air Pollutant Statistical Distributions. - References. - Problems. - Appendix A Units and Physical Constants. - A.1 SI Base Units. - A.2 SI Derived Units. - A.3 Fundamental Physical Constants. - A.4 Properties of the Atmosphere and Water. - A.5 Units for Representing Chemical Reactions. - A.6 Concentrations in the Aqueous Phase. - A.7 Symbols for Concentration. - References. - Appendix B Rate Constants of Atmospheric Chemical Reactions. - References. - Index.