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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Electromigration failure by shape change of voids in bamboo lines (1994)
    [S.l.] : American Institute of Physics (AIP)
    Journal of Applied Physics 76 (1994), S. 1563-1571 
    Details
    ISSN: 1089-7550
    Source: AIP Digital Archive
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: The behavior of electromigration-induced voids in narrow, unpassivated aluminum interconnects is examined, using scanning electron microscopy. Some electromigration tests were interrupted several times in order to observe void nucleation, void growth, and finally the failure of the conductor line. It is found that voids which opened the line have a specific asymmetric shape with respect to the electron flow direction. Besides void nucleation and void growth, void shape changes can consume a major part of the lifetime of the conductor line. A first attempt to model these processes on the basis of diffusion along the void surface shows that voids with a noncircular initial shape tend to produce the fatal asymmetry due to electron wind effects, with the anisotropy of surface energy possibly playing only a minor role.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.357734
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Role of dislocation blocking in limiting strain relaxation in heteroepitaxial films (1994)
    [S.l.] : American Institute of Physics (AIP)
    Journal of Applied Physics 76 (1994), S. 7280-7287 
    Details
    ISSN: 1089-7550
    Source: AIP Digital Archive
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: The residual strain following relaxation in a variety of Si1−xGex heteroepitaxial films grown on (001) Si wafers has been compared with the values of residual strain predicted by the theory based on the incremental movements of isolated threading dislocation segments. It is found that for very thin films (40–500 nm) the measured residual strains after relaxation are significantly higher than the values predicted by this theory. For thicker films, the residual strains are very close to the predicted values. The effect of the interactions of parallel dislocations on the residual strain are investigated using the model developed by Willis, Jain, and Bullough [Philos. Mag. A 62, 115 (1990)] for a two-dimensional array of dislocations. It is found that the experimental data cannot be explained by this model since it predicts even lower values of residual strain than the model based on isolated threading segments. The residual strains are also compared with predictions based on Freund's treatment of the blocking of a moving threading segment by an orthogonal misfit dislocation present in its path [J. Appl. Phys. 68, 2073 (1990)]. It is found that Freund's blocking criterion gives a very good account of the residual strain in Si1−xGex films. Blocking of threading dislocations by other misfit dislocations appears to play an important role in the late stage of strain relaxation in these structures and thus may limit the possibility of obtaining fully relaxed films with low threading dislocation densities. © 1994 American Institute of Physics.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.358013
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Surface-energy-driven intermixing and its effect on the measurement of interface stress (2000)
    [S.l.] : American Institute of Physics (AIP)
    Journal of Applied Physics 87 (2000), S. 2816-2820 
    Details
    ISSN: 1089-7550
    Source: AIP Digital Archive
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: We show that the technique of extracting interface stresses in multilayers using a force balance between layer stresses and substrate forces is extremely sensitive to small amounts of intermixing. Intermixing of as little as one half of a monolayer can produce apparent interface stresses of −2 N/m unless changes in the unstrained lattice parameter are accounted for. Diffusion and intermixing driven by large surface energy differences has been observed in several systems with large positive heats of mixing and limited bulk solid solubility, and is consistent with recently reported lattice parameter measurements in Ag/Ni multilayers. We also present in situ stress measurements in the Ag/Ni system that are consistent with this surface-energy-driven intermixing. We conclude that the reported imbalance between substrate and layer stress forces in Ag/Ni is probably not due to negative interface stresses but is more consistent with the effects of surface-energy-driven intermixing. © 2000 American Institute of Physics.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.372261
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    A physically based model of electromigration and stress-induced void formation in microelectronic interconnects (1999)
    [S.l.] : American Institute of Physics (AIP)
    Journal of Applied Physics 86 (1999), S. 1932-1944 
    Details
    ISSN: 1089-7550
    Source: AIP Digital Archive
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: In this article, a model of electromigration and stress-induced void formation in microelectronic interconnects is presented. This model solves the equations governing atomic diffusion and stress evolution in two dimensions, and can therefore account for the complex grain structures present in typical metal lines. A combined analytical and numerical solution scheme is developed to calculate the atomic fluxes and the evolution of mechanical stress, while avoiding the difficulties associated with finite element based approaches. Once a void has formed, growth is modeled by calculating the flux of atoms away from the void site. By combining models of atomic diffusion, stress evolution, void nucleation, and void growth, the complete void formation process can be simulated. To demonstrate this approach, void growth is calculated in interconnects where electromigration and thermal stress-induced damage have been experimentally observed. The results confirm that the model can quantitatively simulate void formation in realistic grain structures. © 1999 American Institute of Physics.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.370990
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    The effect of oxygen on the thermal stability of Si1−xGex strained layers (1991)
    Woodbury, NY : American Institute of Physics (AIP)
    Applied Physics Letters 58 (1991), S. 1536-1538 
    Details
    ISSN: 1077-3118
    Source: AIP Digital Archive
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: The thermal stability of Si1−xGex strained layers containing 2×1020 oxygen atoms/cm3 is compared with that of similar layers (same Ge fraction and film thickness) containing more than two orders of magnitude less oxygen. For the layers with high oxygen levels, no misfit dislocations were found in films as thick as two times the theoretical equilibrium critical thickness, after annealing at 850 °C for 4 min. In contrast, dislocations were found in the layers with low oxygen levels at thicknesses very near the equilibrium critical thickness after the same anneal. X-ray measurements of lattice constants in high and low oxygen films of similar Ge content indicate that oxygen does not substantially change the amount of strain in the layers. Oxygen appears to impede the kinetics of dislocation formation.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.105170
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Effect of "bamboo" grain boundaries on the maximum electromigration-induced stress in microelectronic interconnect lines (1998)
    [S.l.] : American Institute of Physics (AIP)
    Journal of Applied Physics 83 (1998), S. 3595-3599 
    Details
    ISSN: 1089-7550
    Source: AIP Digital Archive
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: A model which describes the steady-state mechanical stresses resulting from electromigration in microelectronic interconnect lines is presented. This model is valid when sidewall and grain boundary interface diffusion are the dominant transport paths, and accounts for the two-dimensional microstructure present in such lines. By applying the model to simulated line microstructures, we find that bamboo grain boundaries may substantially increase the maximum electromigration stress. Furthermore, microstructural simulations on bounded interconnect segments show that variations in grain size may lead to a large scatter in the maximum stress, particularly as line length decreases. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.366576
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Measurement of the lattice thermal expansion coefficients of thin metal films on substrates (1998)
    [S.l.] : American Institute of Physics (AIP)
    Journal of Applied Physics 83 (1998), S. 3035-3038 
    Details
    ISSN: 1089-7550
    Source: AIP Digital Archive
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: A difference in thermal expansion between a thin film and its substrate causes mechanical stresses in the film. Therefore, knowledge of the thermal expansion coefficients of thin films are important for their technological applications. In this article, we present an analysis which can be used to extract the thermal expansion coefficient of a thin film material using a commonly used x-ray technique. The major advantage of our approach is that it is not necessary to remove the film from the substrate. The knowledge of the elastic constants of the thin film material and their temperature dependence is not required, which is particularly useful when thin film alloys are studied whose thermal and elastic properties are not available. For verification of the method, we investigated thin Al films because the thermal and elastic properties of bulk Al are well known. The comparison of our results with the bulk properties shows a reasonable agreement, indicating the validity of the new method. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.367118
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    A critical thickness condition for a strained compliant substrate/epitaxial film system (1996)
    Woodbury, NY : American Institute of Physics (AIP)
    Applied Physics Letters 69 (1996), S. 173-175 
    Details
    ISSN: 1077-3118
    Source: AIP Digital Archive
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: The physical system under study is a single crystal film grown epitaxially on a substrate of comparable thickness which is constrained to remain flat. In general, the layers are strained due to a mismatch in lattice parameter between the film and substrate materials. The free energy change of the system due to formation of strain-relaxing interface misfit dislocations is estimated, and the discriminating case of zero energy change leads to a critical thickness condition on mismatch strain, film thickness, substrate thickness, and crystallographic slip orientation which is necessary for the spontaneous formation of such dislocations. The condition obtained generalizes the Matthews–Blakeslee (MB) criterion for a thin film on a thick substrate to the case of a complaint substrate/epitaxial film system, and it reduces to the MB criterion when either the film or substrate is relatively thick. © 1996 American Institute of Physics.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.117362
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Erratum: "Effect of coherency stresses on the hardness of epitaxial Fe(001)/Pt(001) multilayers'' [Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2969 (1995)] (1995)
    Woodbury, NY : American Institute of Physics (AIP)
    Applied Physics Letters 67 (1995), S. 1036-1036 
    Details
    ISSN: 1077-3118
    Source: AIP Digital Archive
    Topics: Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115562
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  • 10
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Effect of coherency stresses on the hardness of epitaxial Fe(001)/Pt(001) multilayers (1995)
    Woodbury, NY : American Institute of Physics (AIP)
    Applied Physics Letters 66 (1995), S. 2969-2971 
    Details
    ISSN: 1077-3118
    Source: AIP Digital Archive
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: The effect of coherency stresses on the hardness of epitaxial, sputter-deposited Fe(001)/Pt(001) multilayers was investigated. Coherency stresses were over 2 GPa for films with a bilayer period, Λ, of 44 A(ring) and relaxed by more than a factor of 10 for films with Λ=76 and 121 A(ring). Since the hardness of these films was constant at approximately 9 GPa over this range of Λ, we conclude that the contribution of coherency stresses to the enhanced hardness is small for this system. © 1995 American Institute of Physics.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.114246
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