ALBERT

Description: This submission includes the reference data required to perform a complete verification of the FluxEngine v3.0 install. All data are in netCDF-3 format. Note that this dataset is greater than 100 MB in size. FluxEngine is an open source software toolkit for calculating in situ, regional or global gas fluxes between the atmosphere and ocean. It can be used with model, in situ or satellite Earth observation data. A full description of the toolkit is provided in Shutler et al. (2016) and the FluxEngine software can be freely downloaded from GitHub: https://github.com/oceanflux-ghg/FluxEngine Input data are for the year 2010 with the exception of the Takahashi climatology, which is for the year 2000. The following input data are included: * input_data/air_pressure - atmospheric pressure data from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF, www.ecmwf.int) * input_data/ice - fraction ice coverage from the Ocean and Sea Ice Satellite Application Facility (OSI SAF, www.osi-saf.org) * input_data/rain_gpcp - total precipitation data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Global Precipitation Climatology Project (v2.2) * input_data/sig_wv_ht - significant wave height data from the GlobWave project (www.globwave.org) * input_data/sigma0 - radar backscatter from the GlobWave project (www.globwave.org) * input_data/windu10 - wind speed at 10 m above sea level from the GlobWave project (www.globwave.org) * input_data/SMOS - ocean salinity data from Centre Abal de Traitement des Données Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (CATDS SMOS v01, www.catds.fr) * input_data/SOCATv4 - The Surface Ocean CO₂ Atlas (SOCAT) (Bakker et al., 2016) version 4 reanalysed to a CO₂ climatology using (Goddijn-Murphy et al., 2015) * input_data/SST - skin sea surface temperature (SST) data from the ATSR Reprocessing for Climate (ARC) project. * input_data/sstfnd_Reynolds - sub skin sea surface temperature (Optimally Interpolated SST, OISST project: Reynolds et al., 2007, Banzon et al., 2016) * input_data/takahashi09 - Takahashi CO₂ climatology dataset (Takahashi et al., 2009) Where appropriate input data have been re-gridded from their original resolution into a monthly 1 × 1 degree resolution. The verification process involves comparing a newly generated output (e.g. generated by a local install of FluxEngine) to a reference dataset for each verification scenario. These reference datasets are included in the 'reference_data' directory, and use the following naming convention: * socatv4, takahashi09_pco2 - uses partial pressure of CO₂ (pCO₂) data from SOCATv4 or Takahashi2009 climatologies, respectively * sst, no_gradients - does/does not use sea surface temperature gradients, respectively * salinity - applies a correction for skin layer salinity * N00 - uses (Nightingale et al., 2000) parameterisation for calculating gas transfer velocity * K0, K1, K2, K3 - uses the generic formulation for calculating gas transfer velocity (using only the 0th, 1st, 2nd and 3rd order components, respectively) * takahashi09_all_inputs - The Takahashi et al. (2009) dataset is used for all inputs in order to reproduce the results in Shutler et al. (2016). * FEv1, FEv2, FEv3 - Reference data was generated using FluxEngine version 1, 2 or 3, respectively Configuration files for each validation set are included in the 'configs' directory. These files are well commented and fully specify the input data to be used, data pre-processing, gas transfer velocity parameterisation and the structure of the gas flux calculation to be performed. Acknowledgements: The Surface Ocean CO₂ Atlas (SOCAT) is an international effort, endorsed by the International Ocean Carbon Coordination Project (IOCCP), the Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study (SOLAS) and the Integrated Marine Biosphere Research (IMBeR) program, to deliver a uniformly quality-controlled surface ocean CO₂ database. The many researchers and funding agencies responsible for the collection of data and quality control are thanked for their contributions to SOCAT.

Description: The data set consists of interpolated fields of global surface ocean partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2sw) and the flux of CO2 between ocean and atmosphere, on monthly time and 1-degree latitude and longitude, between January 1992 and December 2018. The pCO2sw is interpolated to this grid from the data set of Holding et al: https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.905316, which is in turn derived from the the SOCATv2019 observational data (https://www.socat.info/) where the observations have been corrected to the surface subskin temperature using satellite-derived surface temperature products. The interpolation uses the neural net technique of Landschützer et al. ( Biogeosciences 10, 7793-7815, doi:10.5194/bg-10-7793-2013 2013). The ocean-atmosphere flux is then calculated, using the gas transfer equation with the gas transfer velocity parameterized as a function of wind speed and atmospheric mixing ratio of CO2, with a further correction for the cool (and salty) surface ocean skin. These corrections for near-surface temperature deviations increase the net negative (e.g. into the ocean) flux. Full details are given in the corresponding article in Nature Communications (doi:10.1038/s41467-020-18203-3) and its accompanying extended data.

Description: Author Posting. © American Meteorological Society, 2009. This article is posted here by permission of The UK–SOLAS projects were funded by the Natural Environment Research Council Grants NE/C001826/1 (HiWASE), NE/C001842/1 (SEASAW), NE/C001702/1 (DOGEE), and NE/E011489/1 (DMS Fluxes); and by NSF Grants ATM05-26341 (Hawaii), OCE-0623450 (Miami), and NSF-OCE 0549887/0834340/0550000 (APL-UW). for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 90 (2009): 629-644, doi:10.1175/2008BAMS2578.1.

Description: As part of the U.K. contribution to the international Surface Ocean–Lower Atmosphere Study, a series of three related projects—DOGEE, SEASAW, and HiWASE—undertook experimental studies of the processes controlling the physical exchange of gases and sea spray aerosol at the sea surface. The studies share a common goal: to reduce the high degree of uncertainty in current parameterization schemes. The wide variety of measurements made during the studies, which incorporated tracer and surfactant release experiments, included direct eddy correlation fluxes, detailed wave spectra, wind history, photographic retrievals of whitecap fraction, aerosol-size spectra and composition, surfactant concentration, and bubble populations in the ocean mixed layer. Measurements were made during three cruises in the northeast Atlantic on the RRS Discovery during 2006 and 2007; a fourth campaign has been making continuous measurements on the Norwegian weather ship Polarfront since September 2006. This paper provides an overview of the three projects and some of the highlights of the measurement campaigns.

Description: As part of the U.K. contribution to the international Surface Ocean–Lower Atmosphere Study, a series of three related projects—DOGEE, SEASAW, and HiWASE—undertook experimental studies of the processes controlling the physical exchange of gases and sea spray aerosol at the sea surface. The studies share a common goal: to reduce the high degree of uncertainty in current parameterization schemes. The wide variety of measurements made during the studies, which incorporated tracer and surfactant release experiments, included direct eddy correlation fluxes, detailed wave spectra, wind history, photographic retrievals of whitecap fraction, aerosol-size spectra and composition, surfactant concentration, and bubble populations in the ocean mixed layer. Measurements were made during three cruises in the northeast Atlantic on the RRS Discovery during 2006 and 2007; a fourth campaign has been making continuous measurements on the Norwegian weather ship Polarfront since September 2006. This paper provides an overview of the three projects and some of the highlights of the measurement campaigns.

Description: © The Author(s), 2019. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in [citation], doi:[doi]. Gommenginger, C., Chapron, B., Hogg, A., Buckingham, C., Fox-Kemper, B., Eriksson, L., Soulat, F., Ubelmann, C., Ocampo-Torres, F., Nardelli, B. B., Griffin, D., Lopez-Dekker, P., Knudsen, P., Andersen, O., Stenseng, L., Stapleton, N., Perrie, W., Violante-Carvalho, N., Schulz-Stellenfleth, J., Woolf, D., Isern-Fontanet, J., Ardhuin, F., Klein, P., Mouche, A., Pascual, A., Capet, X., Hauser, D., Stoffelen, A., Morrow, R., Aouf, L., Breivik, O., Fu, L., Johannessen, J. A., Aksenov, Y., Bricheno, L., Hirschi, J., Martin, A. C. H., Martin, A. P., Nurser, G., Polton, J., Wolf, J., Johnsens, H., Soloviev, A., Jacobs, G. A., Collard, F., Groom, S., Kudryavtsev, V., Wilkin, J., Navarro, V., Babanin, A., Martin, M., Siddorn, J., Saulter, A., Rippeth, T., Emery, B., Maximenko, N., Romeiser, R., Graber, H., Azcarate, A. A., Hughes, C. W., Vandemark, D., da Silva, J., Van Leeuwen, P. J., Naveira-Garabato, A., Gemmrich, J., Mahadevan, A., Marquez, J., Munro, Y., Doody, S., & Burbidge, G. SEASTAR: A mission to study ocean submesoscale dynamics and small-scale atmosphere-ocean processes in coastal, shelf and polar seas. Frontiers in Marine Science, 6, (2019):457, doi:10.3389/fmars.2019.00457.

Description: High-resolution satellite images of ocean color and sea surface temperature reveal an abundance of ocean fronts, vortices and filaments at scales below 10 km but measurements of ocean surface dynamics at these scales are rare. There is increasing recognition of the role played by small scale ocean processes in ocean-atmosphere coupling, upper-ocean mixing and ocean vertical transports, with advanced numerical models and in situ observations highlighting fundamental changes in dynamics when scales reach 1 km. Numerous scientific publications highlight the global impact of small oceanic scales on marine ecosystems, operational forecasts and long-term climate projections through strong ageostrophic circulations, large vertical ocean velocities and mixed layer re-stratification. Small-scale processes particularly dominate in coastal, shelf and polar seas where they mediate important exchanges between land, ocean, atmosphere and the cryosphere, e.g., freshwater, pollutants. As numerical models continue to evolve toward finer spatial resolution and increasingly complex coupled atmosphere-wave-ice-ocean systems, modern observing capability lags behind, unable to deliver the high-resolution synoptic measurements of total currents, wind vectors and waves needed to advance understanding, develop better parameterizations and improve model validations, forecasts and projections. SEASTAR is a satellite mission concept that proposes to directly address this critical observational gap with synoptic two-dimensional imaging of total ocean surface current vectors and wind vectors at 1 km resolution and coincident directional wave spectra. Based on major recent advances in squinted along-track Synthetic Aperture Radar interferometry, SEASTAR is an innovative, mature concept with unique demonstrated capabilities, seeking to proceed toward spaceborne implementation within Europe and beyond.

Description: CG and AM received funding from the United Kingdom Centre for Earth Observation Instrumentation SEASTAR+ project (Contract No. RP10G0435A02). PVL was supported by the European Research Council (ERC) CUNDA project 694509 under the European Union Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Program.

Description: Author Posting. © American Meteorological Society, 2009. This article is posted here by permission of American Meteorological Society for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 90 (2009): ES9-ES16, doi:10.1175/2008BAMS2578.2.

Description: The air–sea flux of greenhouse gases [e.g., carbon dioxide (CO2)] is a critical part of the climate system and a major factor in the biogeochemical development of the oceans. More accurate and higher-resolution calculations of these gas fluxes are required if researchers are to fully understand and predict future climate. Satellite Earth observation is able to provide large spatial-scale datasets that can be used to study gas fluxes. However, the large storage requirements needed to host such data can restrict its use by the scientific community. Fortunately, the development of cloud computing can provide a solution. This paper describes an open-source air–sea CO2 flux processing toolbox called the “FluxEngine,” designed for use on a cloud-computing infrastructure. The toolbox allows users to easily generate global and regional air–sea CO2 flux data from model, in situ, and Earth observation data, and its air–sea gas flux calculation is user configurable. Its current installation on the Nephalae Cloud allows users to easily exploit more than 8 TB of climate-quality Earth observation data for the derivation of gas fluxes. The resultant netCDF data output files contain 〉20 data layers containing the various stages of the flux calculation along with process indicator layers to aid interpretation of the data. This paper describes the toolbox design, which verifies the air–sea CO2 flux calculations; demonstrates the use of the tools for studying global and shelf sea air–sea fluxes; and describes future developments.

Description: Physical oceanography is the study of physical conditions, processes and variables within the ocean, including temperature–salinity distributions, mixing of the water column, waves, tides, currents and air–sea interaction processes. Here we provide a critical review of how satellite sensors are being used to study physical oceanography processes at the ocean surface and its borders with the atmosphere and sea ice. The paper begins by describing the main sensor types that are used to observe the oceans (visible, thermal infrared and microwave) and the specific observations that each of these sensor types can provide. We then present a critical review of how these sensors and observations are being used to study: (i) ocean surface currents, (ii) storm surges, (iii) sea ice, (iv) atmosphere–ocean gas exchange and (v) surface heat fluxes via phytoplankton. Exciting advances include the use of multiple sensors in synergy to observe temporally varying Arctic sea ice volume, atmosphere–ocean gas fluxes, and the potential for four-dimensional water circulation observations. For each of these applications we explain their relevance to society, review recent advances and capability, and provide a forward look at future prospects and opportunities. We then more generally discuss future opportunities for oceanography-focused remote sensing, which includes the unique European Union Copernicus programme, the potential of the International Space Station and commercial miniature satellites. The increasing availability of global satellite remote-sensing observations means that we are now entering an exciting period for oceanography. The easy access to these high quality data and the continued development of novel platforms is likely to drive further advances in remote sensing of the ocean and atmospheric systems.