ALBERT

Notes: Abstract. The global uptake of CO2 in photosynthesis is about 120 gigatons (Gt) of carbon per year. Virtually all passes through one enzyme, ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (rubisco), which initiates both the photosynthetic carbon reduction, and photorespiratory carbon oxidation, cycles. Both CO2 and O2 are substrates; CO2 also activates the enzyme. In C3 plants, rubisco has a low catalytic activity, operates below its Km (CO2), and is inhibited by O2. Consequently, increases in the CO2/O2 ratio stimulate C3 photosynthesis and inhibit photorespiration. CO2 enrichment usually enhances the productivity of C3 plants, but the effect is marginal in C4 species. It also causes acclimation in various ways: anatomically, morphologically, physiologically or biochemically. So, CO2 exerts secondary effects in growth regulation, probably at the molecular level, that are not predictable from its primary biochemical role in carboxylation. After an initial increase with CO2 enrichment, net photosynthesis often declines. This is a common acclimation phenomenon, less so in field studies, that is ultimately mediated by a decline in rubisco activity, though the RuBP/Pi-regeneration capacities of the plant may play a role. The decline is due to decreased rubisco protein, activation state, and/or specific activity, and it maintains the rubisco fixation and RuBP/Pi regeneration capacities in balance. Carbohydrate accumulation is sometimes associated with reduced net photosynthesis, possibly causing feedback inhibition of the RuBP/Piregeneration capacities, or chloroplast disruption. As exemplified by field-grown soybeans and salt marsh species, a reduction in net photosynthesis and rubisco activity is not inevitable under CO2 enrichment. Strong sinks or rapid translocation may avoid such acclimation responses. Over geological time, aquatic autotrophs and terrestrial C4 and CAM plants have genetically adapted to a decline in the external CO2/O2 ratio, by the development of mechanisms to concentrate CO2 internally; thus circumventing O2 inhibition of rubisco. Here rubisco affinity for CO2 is less, but its catalytic activity is greater, a situation compatible with a high-CO2 internal environment. In aquatic autotrophs, the CO2 concentrating mechanisms acclimate to the external CO2, being suppressed at high-CO2. It is unclear, whether a doubling in atmospheric CO2 will be sufficient to cause a de-adaptive trend in the rubisco kinetics of future C3 plants, producing higher catalytic activities.

Notes: Genetic modifications of agronomic crops will likely be necessary to cope with global climate change. This study tested the hypotheses that genotypic differences in rice (Oryza sativa L.) leaf photosynthesis at elevated [CO2] and temperature are related to protein and gene expression of Rubisco, and that high growth temperatures under elevated [CO2] negatively affect photosystem II (PSII) photochemical efficiency. Two rice cultivars representing an indica (cv. IR72) and japonica type (cv. M103) were grown in 350 (ambient) and 700 (elevated) µmol CO2 mol−1 at 28/18, 34/24 and 40/30 °C sinusoidal maximum/minimum, day/night temperatures in outdoor, sunlit, environment-controlled chambers. Leaf photosynthesis of IR72 favoured higher growth temperatures more than M103. Rubisco total activity and protein content were negatively affected in both genotypes by high temperatures and elevated CO2. However, at moderate to high growth temperatures, IR72 leaves averaged 71 and 39% more rbcS transcripts than M103 under ambient and elevated CO2, respectively, and likewise had greater Rubisco activity and protein content. Expression of psbA (D1 protein of PSII) in IR72 leaves increased with temperature, whereas it remained constant for M103, except for a 20% decline at 40/30 °C under elevated CO2. Even at the highest growth temperatures, PSII photochemical efficiency was not impaired in either genotype grown under either ambient or elevated CO2. Genotypic differences exist in rice for carboxylation responses to elevated CO2 and high temperatures, which may be useful in developing genotypes suited to cope with global climate changes.

Notes: Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle exhibits an inducible C4-type photosynthetic cycle, but lacks Kranz anatomy. Leaves in the C4-type state (but not C3-type) contained up to 5-fold higher internal dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) concentrations than the medium, indicating that they possessed a CO2-concentrating mechanism (CCM). Several lines of evidence indicated that the chloroplast was the likely site of CO2 generation. From C4-type leaf [DIC] measurements, the estimated chloroplastic free [CO2] was 400 mmol m−3. This gave a calculated 2% O2 inhibition of photosynthesis, which was identical to the measured value, and provided independent evidence that the estimated [CO2] was close to the true value. A homogeneous distribution of DIC in the C4-type leaf could not account for such a high [CO2], or the resultant low O2 inhibition. For C3-type leaves the estimated chloroplastic [CO2] was only 7 mmol m−3, which gave high, and similar, calculated and measured O2 inhibition values of 22 and 26%, respectively. The CCM did not appear to be located at the plasma membrane, as it operated at low and high pH, indicating that it was independent of use of HCO3− from the medium. Also, both C3− and C4-type Hydrilla leaves showed pH polarity in the light, with abaxial and adaxial boundary layer values of about pH 4·0 and 10·5, respectively. Thus, pH polarity was not a direct component of the CCM, though it probably improved access to HCO3. Additionally, iodoacetamide and methyl viologen greatly reduced abaxial acidification, but not the steady-state CCM. Inhibitor studies suggested that the CCM required photosynthetically generated ATP, but Calvin cycle activity was not essential. Both leaf types accumulated DIC in the dark by an ATP-requiring process, possibly respiration, and C4-type leaves fixed CO2 at 11·8% of the light rate. The operation of a CCM to minimize photorespiration, and the ability to recapture respiratory CO2 at night, would conserve DIC in a densely vegetated lake environment where daytime [CO2] is severely limiting, while [O2] and temperatures are high.

Notes: Rice (Oryza sativa L. cv. IR-72) and soybean (Glycine max L. Merr. cv. Bragg), which have been reported to differ in acclimation to elevated CO2, were grown for a season in sunlight at ambient and twice-ambient [CO2], and under daytime temperature regimes ranging from 28 to 40°C. The objectives of the study were to test whether CO2 enrichment could compensate for adverse effects of high growth temperatures on photosynthesis, and whether these two C3 species differed in this regard. Leaf photosynthetic assimilation rates (A) of both species, when measured at the growth [CO2], were increased by CO2 enrichment, but decreased by supraoptimal temperatures. However, CO2 enrichment more than compensated for the temperature-induced decline in A. For soybean, this CO2 enhancement of A increased in a linear manner by 32–95% with increasing growth temperatures from 28 to 40°C, whereas with rice the degree of enhancement was relatively constant at about 60%, from 32 to 38°C. Both elevated CO2 and temperature exerted coarse control on the Rubisco protein content, but the two species differed in the degree of responsiveness. CO2 enrichment and high growth temperatures reduced the Rubisco content of rice by 22 and 23%, respectively, but only by 8 and 17% for soybean. The maximum degree of Rubisco down-regulation appeared to be limited, as in rice the substantial individual effects of these two variables, when combined, were less than additive. Fine control of Rubisco activation was also influenced by both elevated [CO2] and temperature. In rice, total activity and activation were reduced, but in soybean only activation was lowered. The apparent catalytic turnover rate (Kcat) of rice Rubisco was unaffected by these variables, but in soybean elevated [CO2] and temperature increased the apparent Kcat by 8 and 22%, respectively. Post-sunset declines in Rubisco activities were accelerated by elevated [CO2] in rice, but by high temperature in soybean, suggesting that [CO2] and growth temperature influenced the metabolism of 2-carboxyarabinitol-1-phosphate, and that the effects might be species-specific. The greater capacity of soybean for CO2 enhancement of A at supraoptimal temperatures was probably not due to changes in stomatal conductance, but may be partially attributed to less down-regulation of Rubisco by elevated [CO2] in soybean than in rice. However, unidentified species differences in the temperature optimum for photosynthesis also appeared to be important. The responses of photosynthesis and Rubisco in rice and soybean suggest that among C3 plants species-specific differences will be encountered as a result of future increases in global [CO2] and air temperatures.

Notes: Abstract. The effects were studied of season-long (75 and 88d) exposure of rice (Oryza sativa L. cv. IR-30) to a range of atmospheric CO2 concentrations in outdoor, computer-controlled, environment chambers under natural solar radiation. The CO2 concentrations were maintained at 160, 250, 330, 500, 660 and 900μmol mol-1 air. Photosynthesis increased with increasing growth CO2 concentrations up to 500u.mol moP1, but levelled off at higher CO2 values. Specific leaf area also increased significantly with increasing CO2. Although leaf dry weight and leaf area index increased, the overall response was not statistically significant. Leaf nitrogen content dropped slightly with elevated CO2, but the response was not statistically significant. The specific activity of ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (rubisco) declined significantly over the CO2 concentration range 160 to 900μmol mol-1. When expressed on a leaf area basis, rubisco activity decreased by 66%. This was accompanied by a 32% decrease in the amount of rubisco protein as a fraction of the total soluble leaf protein, and by 60% on a leaf area basis. For leaves in the dark, the total rubisco activity (CO2/Mg2+-activated) was reduced by more than 60%. This indicates that rice accumulated an inhibitor in the dark, probably 2-car-boxyarabinitol 1-phosphate (CA-1-P). However, the inhibitor did not seem to be involved in the acclimation response. The degree of carbamylation of the rubisco enzyme was unchanged by the CO2 growth regime, except at 900 [μmol mol-1 where it was reduced by 24%. The acclimation of rice to different atmospheric CO2 conditions involved the modulation of both the activity and amount of rubisco protein in the leaf.

Notes: Diploid (2n = 18) and tetraploid (2n=36) cyto-types of Matricaria perforata Mérat have sepa rate geographic distributions in Canada. Since seeds are the only means of reproduction, a knowledge of the relationship between tempera ture and germination is important for an under standing of the potential spread of these two invasive cytotypes in Canada. Germination re sponse patterns of six diploid and four tetraploid populations were compared at constant and al ternating temperatures ranging from 0 to 45°C. Tests were performed on achenes collected from plants grown in a common garden for one gen eration at the location of one of the tetraploid sources. The general pattern of germination was similar for both cytotypes. The upper and lower limits for germination were 40°C and 5°C, respectively. Optimum germination occurred at alternating temperatures of 30/10°C. No primary dormancy was found. Although the general response pattern was similar and little variation existed among populations, germination did dif fer at suboptimal constant temperatures; tetraploid populations germinated 28 to 39% more than the diploids within the suboptimal range. These genetic differences may reflect adaptation to prolonged cold winters since the tetraploid populations were collected from more northern latitudes than the diploid populations. Effet de la température sur la germination de populations diploïdes et tétraploïdes de Matri-caria perforate Méret Les cytotypes diploïdes (2n = 18) et tétraploïdes (2n=36) de Matricaria perforata Mérat ont des distributions géographiques séparées. Comme les graines sont I'unique moyen de reproduction, la connaissance des relations entre température et germination est importante pour comprendre le potentiel d'expansion de ces deux cytotypes au Canada. La germination de six populations diploïdes el de qualre tétraploïdes a été com-parée a températures constantes et alternées comprises entre 0 et 45°C. Des essais ont été réalisés sur des akénes prélevés sur des plantes cultivées dans une même pépinière pendant une génération, sur le site d'une des sources de tétraploïdes. Les exigences de germination étaient similaires pour les deux cytotypes. Les limites supérieure et inférieure de germination étaient 40 et 5°C. L'optimum de germination était observé pour une alternance 30/10°C. Aucune dormance primaire n'a été trouvée. Bien que les exigences de germination étaient simi-laires et que peu de variations existaient à l'intérieur des populations, la germination dif-férait à des températures sub-optimales constan-tes. Les populations tétraploïdes germaient mieux (28 à 39%) que les diploïdes aux températures sub-optimales. Ces différences génétiques pourraient réfléter une adaptation aux hivers froids prolongés puisque les populations tétraploïdes étalent récoltées a des lattitudes plus septentrionales que les diploïdes. Wirkung der Temperatur auf die Keimung diploider itnd tetraploider Populationen von Matricaria perforata MératDiploide (2n=18) und tetraploide (2n=36) Populationen von Matricaria perforata Mérat haben in Kanada getrennte Verbreitungsge-biete. Da sich diese Art nur über Samen fortpflanzt, ist es wichtig, die Beziehung zwi-schen Temperatur und Keimung für dies beiden Cytotypen zu kennen, um die mögliche Ausbrei-tung abschätzen zu können. Das Keimungsver-halten bei konstanter und wechselnder Temperatur zwischen 45 und 5°C wurde bei 6 diploiden und 4 tetraploiden Populationen un-tersucht, wozu die Achänen von Pflanzen genommen wurden, die für eine Vegetationspe-riode in einem Garten am Standort einer der tetraploiden Herkunft angezogen worden waren. Beide Cytotypen verhielten sich ähnlich. Die Temperaturmaxima waren 40 und 5°C, das Optimum lag bei der wechselnden Temperatur von 30/10°C. Primäre Dormanz wurde nicht be-obachtet. Obwohl das Keimungsverhalten grundsätzlich ähnlich war und sich die Populationen wenig unterschieden, gab es bei der suboptimalen konstanten Temperatur Unter-schiede, indem dort Samen der tetraploiden Populationen 28 bis 39 % besser als die diploider keimten. In diesem Verhalten könnte sich eine Anpassung an längere kalte Winter wider-spiegeln, denn die tetraploiden Populationen stammten aus nördlicheren Gebieten als die diploiden.

Notes: Design and performance of a 100-cell seed germinator capable of simultaneously generating 100 different diurnal temperature cycles with extremes lying between 0 and 45°C is discussed. Each individual cell is equipped with a separate electronic temperature controller employing a thermistor for temperature sensing. The set temperature for each cell is determined by a precision reference resistor in the controller circuit. Six different reference resistors corresponding to six different temperatures are provided for each cell. The reference resistors are mounted on plug-in modules with one module for each cell. Heating or cooling of the individual cells is provided by thermoelectric heat pumps. Temperature cycling, which approximates a sine function, is achieved by switching the six reference resistors, one at a time, into the controller circuits at appropriate times during a 24h period. Each cell is designed to accept a standard 100 mm Petri dish to contain the seeds. The cells have glass covers to allow entry of light essential for germination of some species.The benefit of using this type of germinator to assess the germination response of Alyssum alyssoides L., Artemisia absinthium L., Euphorbia esula L. and Setaria viridis (L.) Beauv., is discussed. Three dimensional germination response surfaces are given for the four species.