ALBERT

Description: Warming air and sea temperatures, longer open-water seasons and sea-level rise collectively promote the erosion of permafrost coasts in the Arctic, which profoundly impacts organic matter pathways. Although estimates on organic carbon (OC) fluxes from erosion exist for some parts of the Arctic, little is known about how much OC is transformed into greenhouse gases (GHGs). In this study we investigated two different coastal erosion scenarios on Qikiqtaruk – Herschel Island (Canada) and estimate the potential for GHG formation. We distinguished between a delayed release represented by mud debris draining a coastal thermoerosional feature and a direct release represented by cliff debris at a low collapsing bluff. Carbon dioxide (CO2) production was measured during incubations at 4°C under aerobic conditions for two months and were modeled for four months and a full year. Our incubation results show that mud debris and cliff debris lost a considerable amount of OC as CO2 (2.5 ± 0.2 and 1.6 ± 0.3% of OC, respectively). Although relative OC losses were highest in mineral mud debris, higher initial OC content and fresh organic matter in cliff debris resulted in a ∼three times higher cumulative CO2 release (4.0 ± 0.9 compared to 1.4 ± 0.1 mg CO2 gdw–1), which was further increased by the addition of seawater. After four months, modeled OC losses were 4.9 ± 0.1 and 3.2 ± 0.3% in set-ups without seawater and 14.3 ± 0.1 and 7.3 ± 0.8% in set-ups with seawater. The results indicate that a delayed release may support substantial cycling of OC at relatively low CO2 production rates during long transit times onshore during the Arctic warm season. By contrast, direct erosion may result in a single CO2 pulse and less substantial OC cycling onshore as transfer times are short. Once eroded sediments are deposited in the nearshore, highest OC losses can be expected. We conclude that the release of CO2 from eroding permafrost coasts varies considerably between erosion types and residence time onshore. We emphasize the importance of a more comprehensive understanding of OC degradation during the coastal erosion process to improve thawed carbon trajectories and models.

Description: With permafrost thaw, significant amounts of organic carbon (OC) previously stored in frozen deposits are unlocked and become potentially available for microbial mineralization. This is particularly the case in ice-rich regions such as the Yedoma domain. Excess ground ice degradation exposes deep sediments and their OC stocks, but also mineral elements, to biogeochemical processes. Interactions of mineral elements and OC play a crucial role for OC stabilization and the fate of OC upon thaw, and thus regulate carbon dioxide and methane emissions. In addition, some mineral elements are limiting nutrients for plant growth or microbial metabolic activity. A large ongoing effort is to quantify OC stocks and their lability in permafrost regions, but the influence of mineral elements on the fate of OC or on biogeochemical nutrient cycles has received less attention and there is an overall lack of mineral element content analyses for permafrost sediments. Here, we combine portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) with a bootstrapping technique to provide i) the first large-scale Yedoma domain Mineral Concentrations Assessment (YMCA) dataset, and ii) estimates of mineral element stocks in never thawed (since deposition) ice-rich Yedoma permafrost and previously thawed and partly refrozen Alas deposits. The pXRF method for mineral element quantification is non-destructive and offers a complement to the classical dissolution and measurement by optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) in solution. Using this method, mineral element concentrations (Si, Al, Fe, Ca, K, Ti, Mn, Zn, Sr and Zr) were assessed on 1,292 sediment samples from the Yedoma domain with lower analytical effort and lower costs relative to the ICP-OES method. The pXRF measured concentrations were calibrated using alkaline fusion and ICP-OES measurements on a subset of 144 samples (R2 from 0.725 to 0.996). The results highlight that i) the mineral element stock in sediments of the Yedoma domain (1,387,000 km2) is higher for Si, followed by Al, Fe, K, Ca, Ti, Mn, Zr, Sr, and Zn, and that ii) the stock in Al and Fe (598 ± 213 and 288 ± 104 Gt) is in the same order of magnitude as the OC stock (327–466 Gt).

Description: Ice-rich permafrost in the circum-Arctic and sub-Arctic (hereafter pan-Arctic), such as late Pleistocene Yedoma, are especially prone to degradation due to climate change or human activity. When Yedoma deposits thaw, large amounts of frozen organic matter and biogeochemically relevant elements return into current biogeochemical cycles. This mobilization of elements has local and global implications: increased thaw in thermokarst or thermal erosion settings enhances greenhouse gas fluxes from permafrost regions. In addition, this ice-rich ground is of special concern for infrastructure stability as the terrain surface settles along with thawing. Finally, understanding the distribution of the Yedoma domain area provides a window into the Pleistocene past and allows reconstruction of Ice Age environmental conditions and past mammoth-steppe landscapes. Therefore, a detailed assessment of the current pan-Arctic Yedoma coverage is of importance to estimate its potential contribution to permafrost-climate feedbacks, assess infrastructure vulnerabilities, and understand past environmental and permafrost dynamics. Building on previous mapping efforts, the objective of this paper is to compile the first digital pan-Arctic Yedoma map and spatial database of Yedoma coverage. Therefore, we 1) synthesized, analyzed, and digitized geological and stratigraphical maps allowing identification of Yedoma occurrence at all available scales, and 2) compiled field data and expert knowledge for creating Yedoma map confidence classes. We used GIS-techniques to vectorize maps and harmonize site information based on expert knowledge. We included a range of attributes for Yedoma areas based on lithological and stratigraphic information from the source maps and assigned three different confidence levels of the presence of Yedoma (confirmed, likely, or uncertain). Using a spatial buffer of 20 km around mapped Yedoma occurrences, we derived an extent of the Yedoma domain. Our result is a vector-based map of the current pan-Arctic Yedoma domain that covers approximately 2,587,000 km2, whereas Yedoma deposits are found within 480,000 km2 of this region. We estimate that 35% of the total Yedoma area today is located in the tundra zone, and 65% in the taiga zone. With this Yedoma mapping, we outlined the substantial spatial extent of late Pleistocene Yedoma deposits and created a unique pan-Arctic dataset including confidence estimates.

Description: Iron (Fe) plays a key role in mediating organic carbon (OC) decomposition rates in permafrost soils. Fe-bearing minerals stabilize OC through complexation, co-precipitation or aggregation processes and thus hinder degradation of OC. In addition, Fe(III) reduction can inhibit methanogenesis and decrease warming potential of greenhouse gases release. Ice-rich permafrost is subject to abrupt thaw and thermokarst formation, which unlocks OC and minerals from deep deposits and exposes OC to mineralization. These ice-rich domains include Yedoma sediments that have never thawed since deposition and Alas sediments that have undergone previous thermokarst processes during the Lateglacial and Holocene warming periods. The post-depositional history of these sediments may affect the distribution and reactivity of Fe-bearing minerals and the role Fe plays in mediating present day OC mineralization. Here we quantify Fe concentrations, Fe spatial and depth distribution, and Fe mineralogy in unthawed Yedoma and previously thawed Alas deposits from the Yedoma domain (West Siberia, Laptev Sea region, Kolyma region, New Siberian Islands and Alaska). Total Fe concentrations of ice-rich Yedoma deposits and previously thawed Alas deposits were determined using a portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) device. This non-destructive method allowed a total iron concentration assessment of Yedoma domain deposits based on 1292 sediment samples. Portable XRF-measured concentrations trueness were calibrated from alkaline fusion and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) measurement method on a subset of 144 samples (R² = 0.81). Fe extractions of unthawed and previously thawed deposits display that, on average, 25% of the total iron is considered as reactive species, either as crystalline or amorphous oxides, or complexed with OC, with no significant difference between Yedoma and Alas deposits. We observe a constant total Fe concentration in Yedoma deposits, but a depletion or accumulation of total Fe in Alas deposits, which experienced previous thaw and/or flooding events, suggesting that redox driven processes during the Lateglacial and Holocene thermokarst formation impact the present day distribution of reactive Fe and its association with organic carbon in ice-rich permafrost.

Description: Arctic river deltas are sensitive polar landscapes at the land-ocean interface. In contrast to lower latitude deltas, Arctic deltas are characterized by low temperatures, a strong seasonality and the presence of permafrost. Seasonal freezing conditions and underlying permafrost hinders runoff for most of the year and leads to typical land forms such as ice wedge polygons, frost mounds and thermokarst lakes. However, compared to other permafrost dominated landscapes, Arctic deltas are more dynamic. The surface morphology is changing constantly due to river ice break up and subsequent spring flooding, coastal and shoreline erosion, thaw slumping, and degradation of ice rich deposits. Deltaic sediments also tend to be highly susceptible to ground-ice aggradation, making them more ice-rich than adjacent nondeltaic landscapes. In addition, Arctic deltas will be severely affected by global climate change through sea level rise, lengthened thaw season, changing river discharge, storm surge flooding and thawing permafrost. We are therefore at risk, to face reactivation of millennia-old soil carbon and nitrogen deposits by the degradation of previously permanently frozen river delta deposits. However, there is a lack of studies on Arctic deltas and only very coarse estimates on Arctic delta carbon and nitrogen stocks exist. Here we present a new data-set of 140 soil cores, including more than 1400 samples from 17 different deltas spread across the Arctic. We combine new and legacy soil core data to estimate for the first time pan-Arctic deltaic carbon and nitrogen stocks and close a knowledge gap for deep permafrost stock estimations. We found that Arctic deltas present a significant pool for organic carbon and nitrogen, thus their change poses risks far beyond the Arctic. Permafrost thaw in such dynamic landscapes will increase nutrient transport from land to ocean with implications on Arctic near-shore zones (e.g. affecting foodwebs and biogeochemical processes) as well as increased greenhouse gas release due to large amounts of carbon and nitrogen becoming available from previously frozen ground. Our study highlights the need to better understand dynamic processes in Arctic deltas, since these vulnerable carbon and nitrogen rich deposits will be severely affected by the effects of global climate change.

Description: The current estimate for soil organic carbon (SOC) quantity in the northern circumpolar permafrost region (Tarnocai et al., 2009) is 191 Pg for topsoil (0–30 cm depth), 496 Pg for the upper 100 cm of soil and SOC mass to 300 cm soil depth is estimated to be 1024 Pg. In addition, storage in deeper (〉 300 cm) Yedoma deposits (407 Pg) and deltaic deposits (241 Pg) brings the total estimate to 1672 Pg, of which 1466 Pg is stored in perennially frozen ground. The estimate for 0–1 m depth SOC mass is based on the Northern Circumpolar Soil Carbon Database (NCSCD), a geospatial database which links 1647 pedons from the northern permafrost regions to several digitized regional/national soil maps with a combined circumpolar coverage. This database has recently been published online and the data is available in several different file formats, including gridded files with different spatial resolutions. Files adapted for use in GIS or modeling applications (shape-files, TIFF-rasters and NetCDF files) are available for separate regions or with merged circumpolar coverage. Estimates for the 0–30 cm and 0–100 cm depth ranges based on the NCSCD are unlikely to be significantly changed or refined in the coming years. However, the emergence of high quality geospatial datasets with circumpolar coverage as well as applications of spatially distributed regression/kriging techniques in periglacial environments (e.g. Mishra and Riley, 2012) point towards complementary approaches that may significantly increase our knowledge of circumpolar SOC distribution. The present estimates of SOC mass in the 0–300 cm depth range is based on very limited field data (46 Canadian pedons), is accorded low to very low confidence and is not included in the spatially distributed NCSCD (Tarnocai et al., 2009). However, a compilation of additional pedon data is underway and an updated version of the NCSCD will be complemented with spatially distributed estimates of 100–200 cm and 200–300 cm depth SOCM based on 〉 200 deep pedons from around the circumpolar region. This estimate is also planned to include quantification of upscaling uncertainties caused by insufficient field sampling of naturally variable soils and areal misrepresentation of soil types in the maps used for upscaling (following Hugelius, 2012). Hugelius, G. (2012), Spatial upscaling using thematic maps: An analysis of uncertainties in permafrost soil carbon estimates, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 26, GB2026, doi:10.1029/2011GB004154 Mishra U. and Riley W.J. (2012) Alaskan soil carbon stocks: spatial variability and dependence on environmental factors, Biogeosciences Discuss, 9, 5695–5718

Description: Subsea permafrost forms when sea level rise from deglaciation or coastal erosion results in inundation of terrestrial permafrost. The response of permafrost to flooding in these settings will be determined by both ice-rich Pleistocene deposits and the thermokarst basins that thawed out during the Holocene. Thermokarst processes lower ground ice content, create partially drained and refrozen depressions (Alases) and thaw bulbs (taliks) beneath them, warm the ground, and can thaw the ground below sea level. We hypothesize that inundated Alases offshore with relatively lower ice content and higher porewater salinities in their sediments (possibly resulting from lagoon interaction) thaw faster than Yedoma terrain. To test this hypothesis, we estimated permafrost thaw rates offshore of the Bykovsky Peninsula in Tiksi Bay, northeastern Siberia using geoelectric surveys with floating electrodes. The surveys traversed a former undrained lagoon, drained and refrozen Alas deposits, and undisturbed Yedoma terrain at varying distances from shore. A continuous Yedoma-Alas-beach-lagoon survey was also carried out to obtain an indication of pre-inundation subsurface electrical resistivity. While the estimated degradation rates of the submerged Yedoma lies in the range of similar sites, and slows with increasing distance offshore, the Alas rates were more diverse and at least twice as fast within 125 m of the coastline. The latter is possibly due to saline lagoon water that infiltrated the Alas while it was still unfrozen. The ice-bearing permafrost depths of the former lagoon were generally the deepest of the terrain units, but displayed poor correlation with distance offshore. We attribute this to heterogeneous talik thickness upon the lagoon to sea transition, as well as permafrost aggradation processes beneath the spit. Given the prevalence of thermokarst basins and lakes along parts of the Arctic coastline, their effect on subsea permafrost degradation must be similarly prevalent. Remote sensing analyses suggest that 40% of lagoons wider than 500 m originated in thermokarst basins along the pan-Arctic coast. The more rapid degradation rates shown here suggest that low-ice content conduits for fluid flow may be more common than currently thought based on thermal modelling of subsea permafrost distribution.

Description: Warming of the Arctic triggers deep permafrost thaw, which has a strong impact on permafrost organic carbon (OC) storage. To identify the sedimentation history and organic matter (OM) characteristics of thermokarst-affected permafrost landscapes, we carried out an expedition in spring 2017 to the Bykovsky Peninsula. This is a remnant of a late Pleistocene accumulation plain on the Laptev Sea coast, northeastern Siberia. We retrieved a 31-m-long sediment core from underneath a thermokarst lake (water depth: 5.1 m) and analyzed the sediments for n-alkanes, total organic carbon content (TOC) and grain size. From the bottom upwards, the core contained 3 m of frozen sediments from underneath the thaw bulb (Unit I: 36.6-33 m), 25 m of unfrozen Yedoma (taberal) sediments (Unit II: 33-18 m, Unit III: 18-10 m) and 4 m of unfrozen lake sediments (Unit IV: 10-5.1 m). Unit I contained coarsest sediments and rounded pebbles, which point to a strong fluvial influence. Here, we found the highest TOC values (17.8 wt%) and drift wood (organic remains up to 4 cm in size). The dominant mid-chains n-alkanes n-C23 and n-C25 and a high aquatic plant n-alkane proxy Paq (median: 0.65) suggest the growth of submerged/floating macrophytes. With a value of 2.2, the odd-over-even predominance (OEP) is lowest in Unit I. Unit II has a lower relative distribution of the midchain n-alkanes, which suggests the vegetation was likely emergent rather than submerged (median Paq: 0.44). This indicates the onset of Yedoma formation and low-centered polygon development. In the finer sediments of Unit III, the Paq further decreases (median: 0.32) and n-C31 becomes more important, indicating the transition to a drier, grass dominated environment. The thermokarst lake (Unit IV) formed about 8 cal ka BP, indicated by a peat layer. The OM in Unit IV is fresh (median OEP: 8.4) and has the highest n-alkane concentration (20.8 µg g-1 sediment). In this study, we show that thermokarst formation has a potential of mobilizing a large OC pool to tens of meters deep: even though the OM in the sediments below the thaw bulb is furthest degraded, still a substantial amount of OC is stored here. The study of n-alkanes is very useful in identifying OM source and degradability and will help to improve OM mobilization estimates in thawing permafrost by investigating the molecular lipid structure.